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The United States has an established system of 14 National Marine Sanctuariesnational marine sanctuaries, covering an area of 18,000 square miles (47,000 square kilometers). The United States also recently established the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands National Marine Monument, which is currently the largest MPA marine protected area in the world. It covers an area of 140000 square miles (360000 square kilometers) (NOAA National Marine Sanctuaries).
The United States has strongly established fisheries and environmental regulations (Magnuson-Stevenson Act 1976) and also has national legislation that also addresses the creation of MPAs (National Marine Sanctuaries Act 1972).
Problems:
1.) Existing Marine Sanctuaries marine sanctuaries do not have sufficient management authority under the National Marine Sanctuaries Act.
As it currently stands, the management authorities of the Marine Sanctuaries marine sanctuaries only have very limited ability to regulate fishing and boating within the borders of the sanctuary (Stellwagen Bank NMS 2007). Currently, restrictions on fishing are the responsibility by of the National Marine Fisheries Services Service and regional fisheries councils. While such organizations have placed restrictions in response to sanctuary designations, these measures do not generally include the no-take, no-disturbance areas that are required under our proposal (National Academy of Public Administration 2000).
2.) Cultural Issues issues and the conflict between Development development and Conservationconservation
Fishing and other maritime activities have been a longstanding and time-honored part of American culture. Any measure that would increase fishing restrictions would likely face significant, short-term public opposition, especially among fishermen.
Additionally, other stakeholders, such as minerals interested have historically opposed the establishment of MPAs. For example, the establishment of the Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary off the coast of Texas was delayed by almost 15 years due to concerted oil industry lobbying against the sanctuary (Flower Garden Banks 2007).
3.) Environmental Protection protection and Science science are not National Prioritiesnational priorities
Given current affairs, environmental protection and science are not among top national priorities for the United States. This limits the funding available for scientific activities, and that available for the establishment of new MPAs.
4.) Lack of Public Awareness public awareness interferes with Environmental Protectionenvironmental protection
In general, the American public does not have high ocean literacy, a strong awareness of ocean-related issues, or high general environmental awareness. Such a lack of knowledge and awareness makes it extremely difficult to demonstrate the necessity of any protective measures. It interferes with attempts at environmental protection, regardless of type, but especially the establishment of Marine Protected Areasmarine protected areas. It is extremely difficult to gain support for measures to protect that about which the public knows little about.
5.) Difficulties in international relations makes global action difficult
Recent American foreign policy has had the unfortunate effect of alienating and reducing the global influence of the United States global influence. This has made the implementation of ideas perceived to come from American sources at times difficult or impossible. At the same time, the related issues of the oceans and Marine Protected Areas marine protected areas are so global that a multilateral approach is almost certainly required, especially for management in waters outside the jurisdictional control of states.
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1.) Streamline the process for establishing new Marine Protected Areasmarine protected areas
Currently, the process for new MPAs has difficult and requires multiple levels of bureaucracy, public hearings, and fact-finding. These barriers have meant that over the 35 years of the National Marine Sanctuaries act only 14 Marine Sanctuaries marine sanctuaries have been established. In general, less emphasis should be placed on establishing the effectiveness of any given proposal relative to all other management strategies. Instead, given the scientific consensus on the effectiveness reserves, more effort should be placed into where and how to implement reserves, as opposed to whether to implement.
There are other alternatives to national legislation. For instance, note that the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands National Monument was established by an executive order of the president. This example hints at a more efficient method for establishing Marine Sanctuariesmarine sanctuaries.
2.) Strengthen and expand the current National Marine Sanctuaries system through explicit legislation and direct funding
Currently, MPAs in the United States account for about 3.6% of its total exclusive economic zone. This is a very good beginning and the coverage significantly above the global average. However, it is important to note that these coverage figures do not contain a significant proportion of No-Take Reserves. Also, in general, Management management authorities of Marine Sanctuaries marine sanctuaries do not currently possess the direct authority to regulate fishing, shipping, and other human activities. Such authority should be granted under a strengthened Marine Sanctuaries Act or other legislation
The United States needs to continue its efforts to expand the National Marine Sanctuaries system with a special emphasis on the increase of the use of no-take zones in its management strategy. The goal of covering at least 10% of its jurisdiction should be explicitly mandated in new, strengthened legislation or through executive order.
3.) Improve the layout of new and existing Marine Sanctuariesmarine sanctuaries
A network of carefully targeted smaller reserves, operated at more local levels of government would be an excellent way to augment the existing federal sanctuaries. Smaller reserves would make it easier to target particularly threatened, unique, or interesting ecosystems without the need for closing off broad swaths of the ocean.
Also, combining the operation of marine and land-based protected areas will naturally expand the jurisdiction of organizations like the National Park Service to Marine Sanctuariesmarine sanctuaries. Consolidation can reduce costs, streamline operations, and make the establishment of coastal reserves faster and easier (Baumgardner, et. al. 2005).
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The system needs to be changed for the future. In the long run, management of all reserves should be centralized under the national government instead of being fragmented among local governments. However, for short term such a reorganization is not feasible. The best temporary solution would be to set up a central team with members from all government departments that currently have a role in managing Marine Protected Areasmarine protected areas. The goal of such a team would be to facilitate communication and reduce redundancies, making the management more effective and practical.
2.) Explicitly consider both Conservation and Development in the objectives of Marine Protected Areasmarine protected areas
The goal of the Marine Protected Areas marine protected areas must be clear in government regulations and policies. Both the local people and the region's economic interests and environmental protection should be taken into consideration:
(a) In response to China's rapid tourism development, research should be conducted towards making marine nature reserves viable for eco-tourism and to improve the development of tourism management capacity.
(b) Research within the reserves should be utilized to help develop ecologically-friendly aquaculture for surrounding communities.
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Currently, the central government is responsible for the full cost of the operation of national level reserves. Likewise, local governments are responsible for the full cost of lower level reserves. Government departments at all levels should actively encourage various ways to raise operating funds and to offer necessary assistance, guidance and management. For example, private investment should be encouraged to assist the implementation of government policy.
4.) Expand the system of Marine Protected Areasmarine protected areas
As a developing country, it is hard to establish and manage marine reserves. As such, the effectiveness of each new reserve must be care fully considered before action is taken. Special emphasis should be made to develop reserves in habitats with high biodiversity or those inhabited by endangered species.
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