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Benefits of No-Take Zones:
*Ecological Enhancement within the Reserve:
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No-Take Reserves have significant value for research in that they provide a control against which the changes outside can be compared. Long-established marine reserves provide a baseline healthy ecosystem that cannot be fully duplicated with other methods such as mathematical modeling. Areas closed due to fisheries declines produce can very important data for establishing the effectiveness of Marine Reserves in facilitating recovery of fisheries and ecosystems (Hermens, Collie, & Valentine 2003).
Economics:unmigrated-wiki-markup
Despite common assertions to the contrary, Marine Reserves can have significant economic benefits to society, in particular, the assurance of long-term, sustainable fisheries. On On of the unfortunate short-term effects of marine reserves is the displacement of fishermen due to the reduction of fishable waters, the higher levels of congestion, and potential competition. However, in the long run, the establishment of a network of protected areas will inevitably create "optimal harvesting area\[s\]" with "higher resource rents" (Grafton, Komas, & Pham 2006) under controlled fishing rates. Our Our particular proposal is designed to mitigate the short term costs, while attempting to ensure that enough of the ocean is protected so that the future potential can be realized.
But perhaps even more exciting are the beneficial economic effects of Marine Reserves to tourism and other non-exploitative activities. According to the National Marine Protected Areas Center NationalMarineProtectedAreasCenter(1995-1996), the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary and other marine-related parks and refuges provide an "estimated total tourist contribution to the economy of over 60 percent." Considering the scale of tourism in areas such as the Florida Keys, this is a truly significant percentage. Myriad activities such as scuba diving, wildlife watching, boating, surfing, and snorkeling are part of this large and growing industry.
Oftentimes, revenues derived from non-extractive uses compare favorably with other more damaging uses of the ocean. For example, consider that whale watching globally generates more than 1 billion USD in revenue per year (Greenpeace 2007a). For Iceland, in particular, whale-watching alone generated around 8.5 million USD per year in revenue, as compared to an average of 3.5-4 million USD from whaling in the years before the IWC moratorium (Greenpeace 2003). In acknowledgement of these economic realities, in 2007, Iceland announced that it would no longer be issuing commercial whale-hunting quotas (Greenpeace 2007b).
*Education:
Education is easily promoted through MPAs. Bringing awareness through tourism is a fantastic form of mass education. School age kids can be educated with field trips to the MPA and school age kids is where the future of our oceans lie. In addition to the fact that kids often bring what they learned from school trips home with them. MPAs make it easier to increase public access to information about marine areas. Visitor centers, museums, and tourist boat trips are how knowledge of the fishery problem will become public.
Indeed, physical access to the reserve is not even necessary for educational benefits. Another major educational benefit is that MPAs are a great resource for collecting research data and excellent areas to set up oceanic laboratories. MPAs are capable of uniting marine research like the Ecological Characterization Project undertaken by the NationalMarineProtectedAreasCenterNational Marine Protected Areas Center. The information about the project can be found at <http://mpa.gov/pdf/national-system/wcp-eco-character-june9.pdf>. MPAs are capable of great research feats and simply need to be used accordingly.
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We propose that covering 10% of the world oceans with no-take reserves is a reasonable middle ground between social and scientific concerns. Specifically, we note that this is the most conservative coverage amount that has been shown to result in a considerable ecological benefit. We contend that providing a clear and explicit goal is important in several respects: Firstly, it provides concrete target around which a reasonable and expedient timeline can be structured (Ballatine 1991). Secondly, a well-defined goal provides reassurance that the goal is not to eventually close off the entire ocean (Ibid). In In other words, this proposal is a commitment to an "upper bound" unless clear evidence indicates 10% is not enough. In this way, we seek to minimize the impacts of the proposal on human culture and economics, while strongly emphasizing that non-trivial investment today is needed for the sake of the future.
In addition, we acknowledge that such a proposal for Marine Reserves must be part of a broader, global effort for improved sustainability in fisheries and in general. It is essential that Marine Reserves be used in conjunction with more traditional management methods, such as gear restrictions, quotas, etc. (Hyperlink to EXTERNAL SOLUTION PAGES, i.e TECHNOLOGY). Modeling by Guenétte, etSuch a system would zone a much larger proportion of the oceans as MPAs, with varying degrees of protection, with the No-Take Reserves acting as the core of the system. Modeling by Guenétte, et. al (2000) has provided strong evidence that substantial benefits can be derived from relatively small closed areas (between 10-20% of the study area), but only as long as they are strategically located and augmented by other management methods. Real-world experience with existing marine reserves has confirmed that the most convincing evidence of large-scale ecological benefit begins to appear when at least 10% of a given ocean area is protected (Gell & Roberts 2003).
As for acceptability, consider that around 11.5% of global surface area currently falls under some type of state-designated protection (UNEP 2006). These data imply that a comparable level of coverage for the oceans is not an unrealistic target. Even considering that the coverage by each country is uneven, there is clear global precedent for conservation, with diverse regions such as Central America, East Asia, Southern Africa, Europe, Australia, and North America all exceeding the global average (UNEP 2006). Given the proper motivation through education, social development programmesprograms, and the like, it is very conceivable that this 10% proposal could become broadly acceptable (Ballantine 1991).
Selecting Locations for the Reserves:
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Although the No-Take Zones in this proposal are intended to primarily target entire ecosystems, we acknowledge that there are biological or economic situations in which a certain organism is of particular importance. In such cases, an understanding of the relevant biology and ecology is critically important. For For example, key life stages or migration routes of the target species can be protected by careful placement of reserves (Robichaud & Rose 2004). A land-based analogy is the protection of bird nesting sites and reserves for migratory birds, respectively.
When setting up marine reserves, it is also important to consider potential ecological barriers that will prevent the occurrence of spillover, and therefore reduce the ability of the protected area to enhance adjacent fisheries. For instance, one study in the Turks and Caicos Islands found that numerous shallow sand habitats enclosed a population of conch, reducing its spillover into nearby areas (A. Tewfik and C. Bene, 2003).
Of course, there are also the practical matters of cost and enforceability that must be factored into any setup of marine protected areas. Creating a layout for Marine reserves that optimizes these numerous biological, physical, and social factors is a complex issue. Fortunately, there exist several environmental modeling packages such as Marxan (Possingham, Ball, & Andleman 2000), ResNet, and C-Plan that use stochastic statistical methods to optimize these parameters. Naturally, these types of algorithms are effective only given proper data, so continued emphasis on the collection of scientific data is essential. (Hyperlink to EXTERNAL FURTHER RESEARCH PAGE).
*Enforcement, Management , and FundingEnforcement:
In principle, there is nothing wrong with an international approach to marine management. Indeed, if some international organization can provide a "vision" and moral support, it would be extremely beneficial. (Provide Hyperlink to external INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION) However, we contend that the details of implementation are most effectively handled on a national or regional basis. Many states have strongly established legislative and financial machinery to mandate and fund the creation of MPAs, something lacked by virtually all current international bodies.
Also consider that most nations have preexisting infrastructure related to land-based conservation areas that can be expanded and adapted to meet the needs of operating MPAs. Indeed, many nations have currently operational systems of Marine Sanctuaries that could be expanded to meet a 10% goal. For instance, the scope of existing enforcement agencies, such as the National Park Service can be expanded to cover MPAs. Often, it may be effective to extend land-based protected areas offshore, unifying the operation of several diverse protected areas (Consider, for example, the pairing of Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary off the coast of Massachusettsand the Cape Cod National Seashore). Continuing to using the United States as an example, comprehensive legislation such as the National Marine Sanctuaries Act already exists (16 United States Code § 1431). Although this is a very good beginning, such legislation does have significant room for improvement. In particular, the process for creating new Marine Sanctuaries needs to be streamlined, and less emphasis should be placed on the proving the benefits of reserves as compared with other management strategies (Ibid). In particular, the legislation also needs to be expanded to explicitly mandate the creation of more reserves towards a 10% goal.
A major challenge in developing Marine Protected areas is the enforcement of the regulations of the reserves. Once established, A major challenge in developing Marine Protected areas is the enforcement of the regulations of the reserves. Once established, the borders should be relatively constant and the restrictions well-publicized, to avoid confusion among those wanting to fish near the areas. Most violations of Marine Protected Areas are committed close to the borders, so the boats have a chance to leave quickly and dispute that they were ever in the area. Technology Technology can serve as a great help in monitoring Marine Protected Areas. One possibility is to require GPS-based transponders on all boats to ensure they do not cross protected bordersnot cross protected borders. Other technological possibility is satellite-based remote sensing. Relevant management authorities can then use data from such sources to pinpoint violators and the locations in which infringement occurs. One interesting extension would international sharing of enforcement data, which would allow in principle for broader and more effective enforcement.
There are also simple, non-technological ways to limit the number of violations of Marine Protected Areas. One method is to properly size Marine Protected Areas, preventing scales that exceed the capabilities of the work force monitoring it. Also, and perhaps most critically, it is important to promote a local sense of support for the Marine Protected Areas. This creates a form of peer surveillance in which fishers outside of the protected areas will mutually enforce the statutes as well (Jones 2004). In In practice, an effective system of peer surveillance has been shown to be the most effective enforcement method for any management practice (Russ, Alcala, & Maypa 2003). This fact again highlights the fact general acceptance of these reserves is a key factor in their success.
*ExamplesFunding:
*New ZealandExamples:
*United States:
*China:
CHINAThe Status Quo:Wiki Markup
-Freshwater resources rank 6 in the world, but the resources per capita is only one four of the world's average due to large population.(1) GDP*:\* $10.17 trillion (2006 est.)
Political style: communism, strict government control.
108 marine nature reserves at different levels have been established, with a total area of 7.69 million hectares. \ [2\] Among these reserves, 30 are at provincial level, more than 60 at national level and others at county level. All endangered marine species are covered. \[3\]county level. All endangered marine species are covered. [3]
Chinahas established legal management system for marine resource protection. It's general principle is "conservation first, appropriate exploitation and sustaintable development". "Procedures for the administration of marine reserves" is the policy for marine reserve. [4]
Problems:
1.) The efficiency of the management system constrains protection.
The system is devided into national level, provincial level and municipal level, and above each level, there are many departments in charge of the management. Various departments have their own management structure and funding sources. Each department is only actively developing part of the department's protected areas, which leads to competition between departments, redundant construction, fragmentation and overall inefficiency. Whether at the national level or in the provincial and municipal levels, it is difficult to achieve the unity of the construction of protected areas planning.
2.) The contradictions between Protection and Wiki Markup
As a developing country with large fish demand, the contradiction is notable. Unlike inland nature reserves, marine reserves are divided into different areas for protection and exploitation. Though the main goal is protection, it is confliction to exploitation somewhat.
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China's state-level distribution of marine nature reserve is extremely uneven; concentrated distribution is a very prominent phenomenon: There are seven national level marine reserves in the northeast side of the Bohai Strait; eight in the southwest of the Beibu Bay and Hainan Island; but only nine along the long coastline from Shandong to Guangdong.
Suggestions:
Based partially on a report from China's Oceanic Administration Institute of Marine Development Strategy---an official department doing research and supplying suggestions and strategies to the government
1.) Adjustment of management system of marine reserves
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3.) The sources of funding can be both government budget and private sources.
As to reserves especially for endangered species, the government is responsible for the full cost of the reserves' operation; for reserves under local government's control, the government departments at all levels should actively encourage various ways to raise operating funds, and offer necessary assistance, guidance and management. For example, allowing private investment protection on the premise of abidance to the government policy.
4.) Setting up more marine reservesreserves
As a developing country, it is hard to manage marine reserves. So the main point is developing reserves in areas with high species diversity and endangered species. Other possible solutions may be developing provincial level reserves into national ones.
Abesamis R. A., Russ G. R., Alcala A. C. (2006).Gradients of abundance of fish across no-take marine reserve boundaries: evidence from Philipine coral reefs. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 16: 349-371.
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Gell, F. R. and Roberts, C. M. (2003). The Fisheries Effects of Marine Reserves and Fisheries Closures. Washington,DC: World Wildlife Fund.
Goñi R., Quetglas A., Reñones O. (2006). Spillover of spiny lobsters Palinurus elephas from a marine reserve to an adjoining fishery. Marine Ecology Progress Series 308: 207-219.
Grafton, R. Q., Kompas, T., and Pham, V. H. (2006). The Economic Payoffs from Marine Reserves: Resource Rents in a Stochastic Environment. Economic Recrod 82(259): 469-480.
Greenpeace. (2007a) Whale Watching and Marine Sanctuaries. Retrieved 17 November 2007. <www.greenpeace.org/new-zealand/campaigns/oceans/whales/whale-watching-sanctuary>.
Greenpeace. (2007b). Iceland Stops Commercial Whale Hunt. Retrieved 17 November 2007. <www.greenpeace.org/international/news/iceland-ends-commercial-whale-240807>.
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Information Office of the State Council of the People's Republic of China. (1998). The Development of China's Marine Programs.
Johnson D. R., Funicelli N. A. , Bohnsack J. A. (1999). Effectiveness of an Existing Estuarine No-Take Fish Sanctuary within the Kennedy Space Center, Florida. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 19(2): 436-453.
Jones, P. (2004). Collective Action Problems Posed by No-Take Zones. London,United Kingdom: Remax House.
Liu Y., Qiu J. Problems and possible solutions of our country's marine reserves. National Oceanic Administration Institute of Marine Development Strategy
McClanahan, T. R., Verheij, E., Maina, J. (2006) Comparing the management effectiveness of a marine park and a multiple-use collaborative fisheries management area in East Africa. Aquatic Conservation 16: 147-165.
National Marine Protected AreasCenter. (2006) Archives-What MPAs Provide the Nation. Retrieved 17 Nov. 2007. <http://mpa.gov/helpful_resources/archives/benefits.html#social>.
Pauly, D. (2007) Lecture. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge,MA. Possingham, H.P., Ball, I. R., Andleman, S. (2000). Mathematical methods for identifying representative reserve networks. Quantitative Methods for Conservation Biology. New York,New York: Springer-Verlag.
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