TEXT MARKED WITH A STAR STILL IS IN PROGRESS...Take one of them and write stuff up!
Background:
The concept of a Marine Protected Area (MPA) is exceptionally broad and may defined as follows:
"Any area of the coastal zone or open ocean conferred some level of protection for the purpose of management of use of resources or protection of vulnerable or threatened habitats or species." (Agardy 1997)
Both Both among the general population and in the scientific community, it is very difficult to find people who oppose the idea of MPAs in principle. Indeed a recent study conducted by the Ocean Conservancy found that 95% of the comments made during a recent hearing on MPAs in Californiawere supportive of the protection (Hahn 2007).
...
Benefits of No-Take Zones:
Ecological Enhancement within the Reserve:
...
These types of positive ecological results of No-Take zones have been seen around the globe, and are well documented in the scientific literature and well accepted by the scientific community.
_The "Spillover Effect:"
_One of the most interesting aspects of Marine Reserves is the so-called "Spillover Effect," by which improved biomass and diversity within the reserves enhances nearby fisheries and ecosystems. Beginning with the work of Roberts, et. al. (1997), the existence of such an effect has been noted and studies for nearly a decade. In particular, he noted that the dispersal of pelagic larvae from protected areas enhanced the productivity of "downstream" regions and made them more resilient to change. There are numerous documented examples of spillover benefits, from all parts of the world, ranging from the closed area off Cape Canaveral in Florida (Johnson, Funicelli, & Bohnsack 1999) to the examples in the Philippines (Russ, Alcala, & Maypa 2003) and off the coasts of Kenya and Tanzania (McClanahan, Verheij, & Maina 2006).
...
As part of increasing evidence of spillover in general, it is strongly predicted that protected areas will allow the spillover for certain important species. For example, several studies in New Zealand suggest that a small number of spiny lobsters in a population will migrate large distances (R. J. Davidson et al., 2002). Based on this evidence, it is likely that marine protected areas can protect a signification percentage of the population of spiny lobsters and also provide spillover from the reserve (R. J. Davidson et al., 2002). Another study in the Western Mediterranean using catch and effort data about lobster, as well as data from tagged lobsters released in the reserve, suggests that the declining density gradient of lobster is caused by lobsters migrating away from the reserve (Goñi et al. 2006). While it is possible that other factors could have caused the density gradient, because of lobsters' general inability to move long distances compared to the size of the reserve and its overfished status, the establishment of the protected area there probably caused increased export and spillover (Goñi et al. 2006).
*Providing a Scientific Baseline:
No-Take Reserves have significant value for research in that they provide a control against which the changes outside can be compared. Long-established marine reserves provide a baseline healthy ecosystem that cannot be fully duplicated with other methods such as mathematical modeling. Areas closed due to fisheries declines produce can very important data for establishing the effectiveness of Marine Reserves in facilitating recovery of fisheries and ecosystems (Hermens, Collie, & Valentine 2003).
Wiki Markup
_Despite common assertions to the contrary, Marine Reserves can have significant economic benefits to society, in particular, the assurance of long-term, sustainable fisheries. On On of the unfortunate short-term effects of marine reserves is the displacement of fishermen due to the reduction of fishable waters, the higher levels of congestion, and potential competition. However, in the long run, the establishment of a network of protected areas will inevitably create "optimal harvesting area\[s\]" with "higher resource rents" (Grafton, Komas, & Pham 2006) under controlled fishing rates. Our Our particular proposal is designed to mitigate the short term costs, while attempting to ensure that enough of the ocean is protected so that the future potential can be realized.
But perhaps even more exciting are the beneficial economic effects of Marine Reserves to tourism and other non-exploitative activities. According to the NationalMarineProtectedAreasCenter(1995-1996), the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary and other marine-related parks and refuges provide an "estimated total tourist contribution to the economy of over 60 percent." Considering the scale of tourism in areas such as the Florida Keys, this is a truly significant percentage. Myriad activities such as scuba diving, wildlife watching, boating, surfing, and snorkeling are part of this large and growing industry.
Oftentimes, revenues derived from non-extractive uses compare favorably with other more damaging uses of the ocean. For example, consider that whale watching globally generates more than 1 billion USD in revenue per year (Greenpeace 2007a). For Iceland, in particular, whale-watching alone generated around 8.5 million USD per year in revenue, as compared to an average of 3.5-4 million USD from whaling in the years before the IWC moratorium (Greenpeace 2003). In acknowledgement of these economic realities, in 2007, Iceland announced that it would no longer be issuing commercial whale-hunting quotas (Greenpeace 2007b)_
*Education:
_Education is easily promoted through MPAs. Bringing awareness through tourism is a fantastic form of mass education. School age kids can be educated with field trips to the MPA and school age kids is where the future of our oceans lie. In addition to the fact that kids often bring what they learned from school trips home with them. MPAs make it easier to increase public access to information about marine areas. Visitor centers, museums, and tourist boat trips are how knowledge of the fishery problem will become public.
Indeed, physical access to the reserve is not even necessary for educational benefits. Another major educational benefit is that MPAs are a great resource for collecting research data and excellent areas to set up oceanic laboratories. MPAs are capable of uniting marine research like the Ecological Characterization Project undertaken by the NationalMarineProtectedAreasCenterNational Marine Protected Areas Center. The information about the project can be found at <http://mpa.gov/pdf/national-system/wcp-eco-character-june9.pdf
>. MPAs are capable of great research feats and simply need to be used accordingly.
(Website used for information: <http://mpa.gov/science_analysis/science_analysis.html>) (needs to be properly cited)
A 10% Plan for Marine Reserves:
...
Selecting Locations for the Reserves:
Given the conservative coverage area targets, clear thought must be given to maximizing the impact of each unit of ocean area protected. We emphasize that it is not the size of individual sanctuaries that is the most important matter, but rather the global scale of coverage (Guenétte, et. al. 2003). There are several general principles that should be followed when selecting locations for marine reserves. To properly function as a buffer against external exploitation, the 10% of ocean area must include a representative sample of habitats and ecosystems should be protected (Ballantine 1991). Particular emphasis should be placed on protecting especially fragile, unique, or threatened ecosystems. Furthermore, multiple examples of each habitat type should be protected to insure against localized disturbances. Finally, individual Marine Reserves should be set up in mutually reinforcing networks to maximize there influence. Such systems rely on knowledge of the physical processes in play in a given area, especially the activity of advective and convective current systems (Johnson, Funicelli, & Bohnsack 1999 and Ballantine 1991).
Although the No-Take Zones in this proposal are intended to primarily target entire ecosystems, we acknowledge that there are biological or economic situations in which a certain organism is of particular importance. In such cases, an understanding of the relevant biology and ecology is critically important. For example, key life stages or migration routes of the target species can be protected by careful placement of reserves (Robichaud & Rose 2004). A land-based analogy is the protection of bird nesting sites and reserves for migratory birds, respectively. When setting up marine reserves, it is also important to consider potential ecological barriers that will prevent the occurrence of spillover, and therefore reduce the ability of the protected area to enhance adjacent fisheries. For instance, one study in the Turks and Caicos Islands found that numerous shallow sand habitats enclosed a population of conch, reducing its spillover into nearby areas (A. Tewfik and C. Bene, 2003).
Of course, there are also the practical matters of cost and enforceability that must be factored into any setup of marine protected areas. Creating a layout for Marine reserves that optimizes these numerous biological, physical, and social factors is a complex issue. Fortunately, there exist several environmental modeling packages such as Marxan (Possingham, Ball, & Andleman 2000), ResNet, and C-Plan that use stochastic statistical methods to optimize these parameters. Naturally, these types of algorithms are effective only given proper data, so continued emphasis on the collection of scientific data is essential. (Hyperlink to EXTERNAL FURTHER RESEARCH PAGE).
Management and Enforcement:
In principle, there is nothing wrong with an international approach to marine management. Indeed, if some international organization can provide a "vision" and moral support, it would be extremely beneficial. (Provide Hyperlink to external INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION) However, we contend that the details of implementation are most effectively handled on a national or regional basis. Many states have strongly established legislative and financial machinery to mandate and fund the creation of MPAs, something lacked by virtually all current international bodies.
Also consider that most nations have preexisting infrastructure related to land-based conservation areas that can be expanded and adapted to meet the needs of operating MPAs. Indeed, many nations have currently operational systems of Marine Sanctuaries that could be expanded to meet a 10% goal. For instance, the scope of existing enforcement agencies, such as the National Park Service can be expanded to cover MPAs. Often, it may be effective to extend land-based protected areas offshore, unifying the operation of several diverse protected areas (Consider, for example, the pairing of Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary off the coast of Massachusettsand the Cape Cod National Seashore). Continuing to using the United States as an example, comprehensive legislation such as the National Marine Sanctuaries Act already exists (16 United States Code § 1431). Although this is a very good beginning, such legislation does have significant room for improvement. In particular, the process for creating new Marine Sanctuaries needs to be streamlined, and less emphasis should be placed on the proving the benefits of reserves as compared with other management strategies (Ibid). In particular, the legislation also needs to be expanded to explicitly mandate the creation of more reserves towards a 10% goal.
...
There are also simple, non-technological ways to limit the number of violations of Marine Protected Areas. One method is to properly size Marine Protected Areas, preventing scales that exceed the capabilities of the work force monitoring it. Also, and perhaps most critically, it is important to promote a local sense of support for the Marine Protected Areas. This creates a form of peer surveillance in which fishers outside of the protected areas will mutually enforce the statutes as well (Jones 2004). In practice, an effective system of peer surveillance has been shown to be the most effective enforcement method for any management practice (Russ, Alcala, & Maypa 2003). This fact again highlights the fact general acceptance of these reserves is a key factor in their success.
*Funding:
*Examples:
CHINAThe Status Quo:-A developing country with long coastline (18,000 km) and large fish demand.
-Freshwater resources rank 6 in the world, but the resources per capita is only one four of the world's average due to large population.(1) GDP*:* $10.17 trillion (2006 est.)
Political style: communism, strict government control.
Wiki Markup
Chinahas established legal management system for marine resource protection. It's general principle is "conservation first, appropriate exploitation and sustaintable development". "Procedures for the administration of marine reserves" is the policy for marine reserve. [4]
Problems:
1.) The efficiency of the management system constrains protection.
The system is devided into national level, provincial level and municipal level, and above each level, there are many departments in charge of the management. Various departments have their own management structure and funding sources. Each department is only actively developing part of the department's protected areas, which leads to competition between departments, redundant construction, fragmentation and overall inefficiency. Whether at the national level or in the provincial and municipal levels, it is difficult to achieve the unity of the construction of protected areas planning.
2.) The contradictions between Protection and Wiki Markup
As a developing country with large fish demand, the contradiction is notable. Unlike inland nature reserves, marine reserves are divided into different areas for protection and exploitation. Though the main goal is protection, it is confliction to exploitation somewhat.
...
As to reserves especially for endangered species, the government is responsible for the full cost of the reserves' operation; for reserves under local government's control, the government departments at all levels should actively encourage various ways to raise operating funds, and offer necessary assistance, guidance and management. For example, allowing private investment protection on the premise of abidance to the government policy.
4.) Setting up more marine reservesreserves
As a developing country, it is hard to manage marine reserves. So the main point is developing reserves in areas with high species diversity and endangered species. Other possible solutions may be developing provincial level reserves into national ones.
Abesamis Abesamis R. A., Russ G. R., Alcala A. C. (2006).Gradients of abundance of fish across no-take marine reserve boundaries: evidence from Philipine coral reefs. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 16: 349-371.
Agardy, M. T. (1997). Marine Protected Areas and Ocean Conservation. San Diego,California: Academic Press
Agardy, M.T., Bridgewater, P., Crosby, M. P., Day, J., et. al. (2003) Dangerous targets? Unresolved issues and ideological clashes around marine protected areas. Aquatic Conservation, 13(4), 1-15.
Ballantine, W. J. (1991). Marine Reserves for New Zealand. Warkworth, New Zealand: UniversityofAuckland, Leigh Marine Laboratory. 11 11 October 2006. China opens marine life biodiversity protection center. Xinhua General News Service.
Cole R. G., Villouta E., Davidson R. J. (2000). Direct evidence of limited dispersal of the reef fish Parapercis colias (Pinguipedidae) within a marine reserve and adjacent fish areas. Aquatic conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 10: 421-436.
Davidson R. J., Villouta E., Cole R. G., Barrier R. G. F. (2002). Effects of marine reserve protection on spiny lobster (Jasus edwardsii) abundance and size at Tonga IslandMarine Reserve,New Zealand. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 12: 213-227.
Evans, R. D., Russ, G. R. (2004). Larger biomass of targeted reef fish in no-take marine reserves on the Great Barrier Reef. Aquatic Conservation, 14(5): 505-519.
Gell, F. R. and Roberts, C. M. (2003). The Fisheries Effects of Marine Reserves and Fisheries Closures. Washington,DC: World Wildlife Fund. Goñi
Goñi R., Quetglas A., Reñones O. (2006). Spillover of spiny lobsters Palinurus elephas from a marine reserve to an adjoining fishery. Marine Ecology Progress Series 308: 207-219.
Grafton Grafton, R. Q., Kompas, T., and Pham, V. H. (2006). The Economic Payoffs from Marine Reserves: Resource Rents in a Stochastic Environment. Economic Recrod 82(259): 469-480. Greenpeace
Greenpeace. (2007a) Whale Watching and Marine Sanctuaries. Retrieved 17 November 2007. <www.greenpeace.org/new-zealand/campaigns/oceans/whales/whale-watching-sanctuary>. Greenpeace
Greenpeace. (2007b). Iceland Stops Commercial Whale Hunt. Retrieved 17 November 2007. <www.greenpeace.org/international/news/iceland-ends-commercial-whale-240807>.
Greenpeace. (2003) Icelandic Whaling.. Retrieved 17 November 2007. <www.greenpeace.org/international/campaigns/oceans/whaling/icelandic-whaling>.
Guenétte, S., Pitcher T. J., Walters C. J. (2000). The Potential of Marine Reserves for the management of Northern Cod in Newfoundland. Bulletin of Marine Science_,_ 66(3): 831-852.
Hahn, S. (2007, October 17) Historic new protections could save our shores. Metroactive (Santa Cruz,CA) online edition. <www.metroactive.com/metro/10.17.07/news2-0742.html>.
Hermsen, J. M., Collie, J. S., Valentine, P. C. (2003). Mobilefishing gear reduces benthic megafaunal production on Georges Bank_._ Marine Ecology Progress Series 260: 97-108.
Information Office of the State Council of the People's Republic of China. (1998). The Development of China's Marine Programs.
Johnson Johnson D. R., Funicelli N. A. , Bohnsack J. A. (1999). Effectiveness of an Existing Estuarine No-Take Fish Sanctuary within the Kennedy Space Center, Florida. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 19(2): 436-453. Jones
Jones, P. (2004). Collective Action Problems Posed by No-Take Zones. London,United Kingdom: Remax House.
Liu Y., Qiu J. Problems and possible solutions of our country's marine reserves. National Oceanic Administration Institute of Marine Development Strategy
McClanahan McClanahan, T. R., Verheij, E., Maina, J. (2006) Comparing the management effectiveness of a marine park and a multiple-use collaborative fisheries management area in East Africa. Aquatic Conservation 16: 147-165. National
National Marine Protected AreasCenter. (2006) Archives-What MPAs Provide the Nation. Retrieved 17 Nov. 2007. <http://mpa.gov/helpful_resources/archives/benefits.html#social>.
Pauly Pauly, D. (2007) Lecture. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge,MA. PossinghamPossingham, H.P., Ball, I. R., Andleman, S. (2000). Mathematical methods for identifying representative reserve networks. Quantitative Methods for Conservation Biology. New York,New York: Springer-Verlag.
Roberts, C.M, et al. (1997). Effects of Marine Reserves on Adjacent Fisheries. Science 294:1920-1923.
Robichaud, D., Rose, G. A. (2004) Migratory behavior and range in Atlantic Cod: inference from a century of tagging. Fish and Fisheries 5: 185-214.
Russ, G. R., Alcala, A. C., Maypa, A.P.(2003).Spillover from marine reserves: The case of Naso vlamingii at ApoIsland, The Philippines. Marine Ecological Progress Series 264: 15-20.
Tewfik A., Benen C. (2003). Effects of natural barriers on the spillover of a marine mollusc: implications for fisheries reserves. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 13: 473-488.
United Nations Environment Program. (2006) UNEP World Database on Protected Areas. Retrieved 11 November 2007. <http://www.unep-wcmc.org/wdpa/>.
Xue, G. (2005). China And International Fisheries Law And Policy.