Examples
United States of America
Background:
- A large developed country with a long coastline.
- The United States has the largest exclusive economic zone of an country in the world, at around 4.4 million square miles (11 million square kilometers) (Thurman & Trujillo 2002).
- High fish demand, generally not for subsistence.
- GDP: $13.13 trillion USD (2006 est)
Political Style: Democratic, Federal Republic
The United States has an established system of 14 National Marine Sanctuaries, covering an area of 18,000 square miles (47,000 square kilometers). The United States also recently established the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands National Marine Monument, which is currently the largest MPA in the world. It covers an area of 140000 square miles (360000 square kilometers) (NOAA National Marine Sanctuaries).
The United States has strongly established fisheries and environmental regulations (Magnuson-Stevenson Act 1976) and also has national legislation that also addresses the creation of MPAs (National Marine Sanctuaries Act 1972).
Problems:
1.) Cultural Issues and the conflict of Environment and Development
Fishing has been a longstanding and time-honored part of American way-of-life. Any measure that would increase fishing restrictions in the short term would likely face significant public opposition, especially among fishermen.
Additionally, other stakeholders, such as minerals interested have historically opposed the establishment of MPAs. For example, the establishment of the Flower Garden Banks NMS was delayed by almost a decade and a half by concerted oil industry lobbying against the sanctuary (Flower Garden Banks, 2007).
2.) Setting National Priorities
Given current affairs, environmental protection and science are not among top national priorities for either the government or the populace. This limits the funding available for scientific activities, and that available for the establishment of new MPAs.
3.) Public Awareness
In general, the American public does not have high ocean literacy, a strong awareness of ocean related issues, or high general environmental awareness. Suck a lack of knowledge and awareness interferes with any attempts at environmental protection, regardless of type.
4.) International Relations
Recent American foreign policy has had the unfortunate effect of alienating and reducing America's global influence. This has made the implementation of ideas perceived to come from American sources at times difficult or impossible. The joint issues of the oceans and Marine Protected Areas are so global that a multilateral approach is almost certainly required, especially for management in waters outside the jurisdictional control of states.
Suggestions:
1.) Streamline the process for establishing new Marine Protected Areas
Currently, the process for new MPAs has difficult and requires multiple levels of bureaucracy, vetting, and scoping. In general, less emphasis should be placed on establishing the effectiveness of any given proposal to all other management strategies. Instead, given the scientific consensus on the effectiveness, more effort should be placed into where to implement as opposed to whether to implement MPAs. Over the 35 years of the National Marine Sanctuaries act only 14 Marine Sanctuaries have been established.
Note that the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands were established by executive order of the president. This example hints at a far more efficient means of establishing Marine Sanctuaries.
2.) Expand the National Marine Sanctuaries system through explicit legislation and direct funding.
Currently, MPAs in the United States account for about 3.6% of its total exclusive economic zone. This is a very good beginning and the coverage significantly above the global average. The United States needs to continue its efforts to expand the Marine Sanctuaries system with the goal of covering at least 10% of its jurisdiction. This can be achieved through a legislative mandate that explicitly sets this goal for the nation and provides the necessary funding to achieve this goal.
3.) Improve the layout of new and existing Marine Sanctuaries.
A network of carefully targeted smaller reserves, operated at more local levels of government would be an excellent way to augment the existing federal sanctuaries. Smaller reserves would make it easier to target particularly threatened, unique, or interesting ecosystems without the need for closing off broad swaths of the ocean.
4.) Engage in a formal public ocean education program.
Ocean education should be a mandatory part of all public school curricula. The oceans are represent 71% of planet's surface and a significantly larger percentage of its biosphere volume (Thurman & Trujillo 2002). The current neglect for ocean literacy in many school systems is a terrible oversight and should be rectified immediately. The National Marine Sanctuaries system can be a terrific educational resource, whether through direct access or by remote access through technological solutions. Also, consider that school aged children have traditionally been an excellent conduit for bringing awareness to parents.
5.) Sponsor public awareness campaigns.
The general population must be made and kept informed of ocean issues. One of the most effective way to do that in the united is in the use of mass-market media. These campaigns can be broadly targeted and disseminated in a wide variety of formats, from radio and TV to print advertising.
6.) Work internationally to encourage global conservation and movement towards the 10% plan.
Although the global influence of the United States has diminished in recent years, it is still one of the leaders of the international community.
China
Background:
-A developing country with long coastline (18,000 km) and large fish demand.
-Freshwater resources rank 6th in the world, but the resources per capita is only one fourth of the world's average due to large population. (Chinese Information Office 1998)
-GDP: $10.17 trillion (2006 est.)
Political style: communism, strict government control.
108 marine nature reserves at different levels have been established, covering a total area of 7.69 million hectares (Liu & Qin). Among these reserves, 30 are at provincial level, more than 60 at national level and others at county level. All known endangered marine species are covered (Xinhua 2006).
China has established legal management system for marine resource protection. Its general principle is "conservation first, appropriate exploitation and sustainable development" (Xue 2005).
Problems:
1.) The inefficiency of the management system constrains protection.
The system is divided into national, provincial and municipal levels, and above each level there is a very complex bureaucracy. Various departments have their own management structure and funding sources. Each department is only actively developing part of the department's protected areas, which leads to competition between departments, redundant construction, fragmentation and overall inefficiency. Whether at the national level or in the provincial and municipal levels, it is difficult to achieve the unity of the construction of protected areas planning.
2.) The contradictions between Protection and Development
As a developing country with a large fish demand, the contradiction is notable. Unlike inland nature reserves, marine reserves are divided into different areas for protection and exploitation. This is an apparent conflict of interest to have areas under protection used for both protection and exploitation.
3.) Most protected areas do not have adequate funding, so protection and management is difficult to implement.
The central government only supports national level reserves. Funding for other reserves comes from local government. Because of this, some of the underdeveloped regions are not capable of operating effective management. Most of the funds are only for basic facilitates, but rarely for scientific research. Independent scientific research in these areas is very limited. Due to the lack of operational funds, the hard conditions and the high cost of management, the effectiveness of the management of marine reserves is therefore greatly reduced.
4.) The overall layout of marine reserves stays to be improved
China's state-level distribution of marine nature reserve is extremely uneven; concentrated distribution is a very prominent phenomenon: There are seven national level marine reserves in the northeast side of the Bohai Strait; eight in the southwest of the Beibu Bay and Hainan Island; but only nine along the long coastline from Shandong to Guangdong.
Suggestions:
Based partially on a report from China's Oceanic Administration Institute of Marine Development Strategy---an official department doing research and supplying suggestions and strategies to the government
1.) Adjustment of management system of marine reserves
The system needs to be changed for the future. All of the reserves must be under central government control instead of the local government. But for short term this is not feasible. The temporary solution would be to set up a team with members from all the departments in charge of marine reserves now. Its goal would be connecting all the departments to make the management more effective and practical.
2.) The overall development objectives of marine reserves should explicitly include conservation and development
The goal must be clear in the regulations and policies. Both the local people and the region's economic interests and the natural ecological protection should be taken into consideration.
(a) As to China's rapid tourism development, the institute proposes to research to develop the marine nature reserves into eco-tourism spots and improve the development of tourism management capacity.
(b) Utilizing the research within the reserves to help develop ecologically-friendly aquaculture of surrounding communities
3.) The sources of funding can be both government budget and private sources.
As to reserves especially for endangered species, the government is responsible for the full cost of the reserves' operation; for reserves under local government's control, the government departments at all levels should actively encourage various ways to raise operating funds, and offer necessary assistance, guidance and management. For example, allowing private investment protection on the premise of abidance to the government policy.
4.) Setting up more marine reserves
As a developing country, it is hard to manage marine reserves. So the main point is developing reserves in areas with high species diversity and endangered species. Other possible solutions may be developing provincial level reserves into national ones.
Perú
See attachments. Update coming up.