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Fish and Human Culture: A Brief Description
The importance of fish to human populations around the world is undeniable. Throughout history, different cultures have used fish protein as a food source, with wild-caught fish providing the bulk of fish-derived protein. The oldest known painting of an angler using a rod or staff dates back to 2000 B.C. in Egypt (Anderson 2004). Fish have also been farmed in large quantities for more than 2000 years in China (Orr 2004). In addition, fishing has been a source of recreational pleasure for many people.
A constant but subtle theme in the development of different cultures is the use and dependence on fish and other aquatic life - for sustenance, trade, livelihood, and environment. As a result, the stability and instability of many cultures are dependent on the nearby marine biota. For example, in the last 20 years in Asia, the huge growth of shrimp farming and other aquaculture has helped to fuel the economic growth of Thailand,Bangladesh and Vietnam. In these countries, fish exports dominate those of all other agricultural commodities, i.e., in Vietnam in 2001, US$1.8 billion of seafood was exported versus US$600 million of rice (Williams 2004). Fish can also lead to destabilizing forces such as when illegal fishing strains relations between countries. Despite the pervasive nature of fish issues in various regions, they are often not visible on the political agenda until a crisis occurs. For example, a series of confrontations in the 1950s and 1970s was fought between the United Kingdom and Iceland regarding fishing rights near the coast of Iceland. This conflict, also known as the Iceland Cod Wars, is indicative of the importance and influence of fish on different cultures (Kurlansky 2003).
Spotlighting Japan's history with fish, we can understand that aquatic organisms play a pivotal role in the culture of island-nations. In Japan, fish is second only to rice as a staple in the Japanese diet. Japan's fishing fleet provides most of the fish consumed domestically, and it is on of the largest in the world with a total fish catch of 5.9 million metric tons in 1999 (Cybriwsky et al. 2004). Coastal fishing of various species in Japan dates back to pre-modern times, but distant-water fishing beyond its present exclusive economic zones (EEZ) only began around the 1920s and increased dramatically during the food shortage of the immediate post--World War II period (Macmillan 2006). However, Japan's coastal fishing has been suffering since the 1970s from both depletion of resources and the lack of successors. In recent years, the removal of trade barriers on fishery products and the reduction of government subsidies to the fishing industry have also forced coastal fishermen to change careers (Macmillan 2006). It is unavoidable that the era of fishing as a primary and commodity industry is passing in Japan, as well as in many other nations, due to increasing demand and decreasing catch.
+Work Cited+
Anderson, James L. et al. 2004. Fisheries. In Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia Standard
Cybriwsky, Roman. A., Peter Duus, John O. Haley, Richard Katz, and Paul Varley. 2004. Japan. In Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia Standard
Kurlansky, Mark. 2003. Cod: A Biography of the Fish That Changed the World. New York: Penguin Books.
Macmillan Reference USA. 2006. Fishing Industry-Japan. In Encyclopedia of Modern Asia
Orr, James W. 2004. Fish. In Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia Standard
+History of Compliance with International Mandates+
As our plans involve producing behavioral changes on a global scale, the issues of international compliance and enforcement are major factors to consider. Throughout history, there have been multiple instances of international mandates imposed upon the entire international community, with varying degrees of success. In each of the two cases, the probable motivating factors as well as their relevance to our solutions are considered.
One of the most significant international agreements from the past century is the Geneva Convention , which dictates the rules of war and attempts to bring humanity and order into a world that could be overrun by chaotic and barbaric means of settling international disagreements. This mandate, accepted by virtually all major countries in the world today, bans certain weapons, such as chemical and biological agents, and guarantees basic rights to soldiers in enemy hands. However, despite the wide-spread acceptance of the Geneva Convention, the primary motivating factor appears to be self-preservation; people follow the rules in the hope that should the tides change, their opponents will treat them decently as well. For those with nothing to lose, like terrorists, the Geneva Convention is simply disregarded. The situation with preserving global fisheries does not pose the same imminent alternative of painful death and torture, making it more difficult to ensure compliance.
Another international mandate is the Kyoto Protocol. Dealing with the carbon emissions of developed nations, this agreement is concerned with staving off the projected disastrous effects of global warming. Each country receives a pre-determined limit on the amount of carbon its factories and industries release into the atmosphere, prompting nations to find more environmentally friendly means of conducting business. Like the case of the ocean's fisheries, the atmosphere is an international resource that is threatened by the actions of every person on Earth, with consequences that can disrupt the livelihood of the entire world. Unfortunately, conforming to the requirements of the Kyoto Protocol is extremely costly; though potentially beneficial in the long term, the immediate costs often deter nations from agreeing, let alone complying, to the Kyoto Protocol. Furthermore, the current punitive measures stated in the agreement have proved to be worthless; nations that exceed their carbon limit are supposed to do better the year after, and the economic sanctions are minor to nonexistent. Aside from being loosely enforced, the punishment itself is counterintuitive. At present, the economic incentives to ignore the Kyoto Protocol have far outweighed the benefits. Saving the earth is the ideal goal, but between the economy and the environment, we have observed that most nations will consider financial stability a top priority.
Sources: [http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=1307667221&sid=5&Fmt=2&clientId=5482&RQT=309&VName=PQD]; [http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=801652851&sid=5&Fmt=2&clientId=5482&RQT=309&VName=PQD]; [http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=784211311&sid=5&Fmt=3&clientId=5482&RQT=309&VName=PQD]
+International Fishing Industries+
*China*
China is a quickly developing nation that is increasing its demand of fish as its economy expands. With a coastline of about 18,000 km and a huge fish demand, it is an important country to consider when looking at the world's fisheries. China itself has recognized the issue of the world's declining fish populations and has accordingly established legal management systems for marine resource protection. With more than 108 natural reserves that total up to more than 7.69 million hectares and principles such as "conservation first, appropriate exploitation and sustainable development", it seems as if the country is well on its way to reaching sustainability. However, the problem arises when the efficiency of the system management is analyzed. With each department and governmental level having its own structure and laws, there is often competition, fragmentation, miscommunication, and general inefficiency. Similarly, lack of funds allow for minimal research and poor management. As the country continues to develop and expand, the demand for fish will increase as well. In order to prevent a complete fishing collapse in the near future, it is necessary to restructure the management of fishing reserves, analyze the flaws in the current political system, and increase funding to support research and management.
+Works Cited+
1. Information Office of the State Council Of the People's Republic of China, The Development of China's Marine Programs, May 1998, Beijing
2. Liu Yan, Qiu Jun, Problems and possible solutions of our country's marine reserves, National Oceanic Administration Institute of Marine Development Strategy
3. Xinhua General News Service, *China* opens *marine* life biodiversity pretection center, October 11, 2006
4. Guifang Xue, China And International Fisheries Law And Policy, 2005
+Economics+
Fish have played an integral role in the development of many economies. For example, the American colonies were able to develop financial independence with the abundance of cod, and the Vikings of Iceland made a fortune from the wealth of fish in the region. Now, centuries later, fish are still key players in the global economy. As developing countries have grown and consumers are becoming richer, the demand for fish is shaping the markets for seafood across the globe. Global consumption of fish has doubled in the past thirty years, with more than 90% of the developing world contributing to that increase. As more countries become dependent on this new staple, more economies have become based around the fisheries as well. In fact, the net exports of fish and fish products from developing countries to developed countries is worth well over $17 billion. Many of the developing countries' economies have grown due to the demand of fish. Although a world fishery collapse is imminent, it is necessary to consider the economic impact that certain policies and changes will almost certainly have on the world economy.
+Works Cited+
Kurlansky, Mark. Cod: A Biography of the Fish that Changed the World, 1997, Walker Publishing Company, Inc. USA
Delgado, Christopher, International Food Policy Research Institute, 2020 Vision Food Policy Report, Outlook for Fish to 2020: Meeting Global Demand �
+Policies+
*Whaling: History of the Zero-Catch Limit Moratorium*
In 1986, the International Whale Commission (IWC) decided that catch limits for all whales would be set to zero due to disagreements about catch limits for unprotected species of cetaceans and also to allow time for more scientific research so that it might be possible to have future catch limits other than zero (IWC, 2007a). Of the seventy-eight nations under the IWC's regulations, only three countries have continued with whale hunts: Iceland, Norway, and Japan.
Iceland initially agreed to the moratorium set by the IWC and continued hunting under scientific permit. Three years later, the government ended all scientific endeavors involving lethal whale kills but maintained exports of whale meat to Japan. In 1992, Iceland left the IWC only to return in 2002; however, with the rejoin, Iceland claimed exemption from the zero catch limit set by the IWC (Muller, 2007). After a year, scientific whaling resumes only to turn into full-scale commercial hunting in 2006. In late August of 2007, the government signals an end to commercial whaling due to a lack of consumer demand (IFAW, 2007).
Norway did not put an end to its commercial whaling industry until two years after the IWC implemented the zero catch limit, only to continue its whaling practices under scientific permit. In 1993, commercial hunting resumes under claims that Norway is not bound by the IWC moratorium (Muller, 2007).
Japan complied with the zero catch limit moratorium set by IWC and continued its whaling efforts as scientific research. Each year, an attempt was made to lift the catch limit but was never passed. Several small island nations have been recruited in this effort; however, sufficient numbers have not been rallied to pass such a resolution (Muller, 2007). Disregarding the protests of other nations, Japan expanded its scientific whaling program to include more Minke whales and endangered Fin, Sei, and Humpback species in 2006.
Ocean sanctuaries have been set up to protect whales from prosecution that they are not able to deal with, namely human hunting. The first was set up in the Antarctic Ocean in 1932. The Indian Ocean Sanctuary was set up in 1979. In 1994, the Southern Ocean Sanctuary was adopted by the IWC and will be reviewed every ten years. Proposals for a South Atlantic and South Pacific Sanctuaries have been submitted; the three-quarters majority vote has not been met for either region (IWC, 2007b).
+Works Cited+
International Fund for Animal Welfare. (2007). Iceland signals an end to its commercial whaling enterprise due to lack of consumer demand. Retrieved November 19, 2007, from [http:///www.ifaw.org/ifaw/general/default.aspx?oid=220372].
International Whaling Commission. (2007). Commission Information. Retrieved November 19, 2007, from [http://www.iwcoffice.org/commission/iwcmain.htm].
International Whaling Commission. (2007). Whale Sanctuaries. Retrieved November 19, 2007, from [http://www.iwcoffice.org/conservation/sanctuaries.htm].
Muller, George C. (2007). Timeline of Commercial Whaling. Retrieved November 19, 2007, from [http://www.cgeorgemuller.com/timeline.htm].
+Politics+
As the "Cod Wars" between Great Britain and Iceland during the 1950's to 1970's showed, fishing was a significant enough industry for them to challenge each other with naval forces. Iceland provoked the start of all three of these conflicts by extending their EEZ farther from their shores every time. Iceland felt that these measures were necessary because their economy depends so heavily on the fishing industry, due to a lack of agriculture and other natural resources. "Fish and fish products of one form or another...have on average accounted for 89.71 per cent of Iceland's total export in each year during the period 1881-1976" (TED). This dependence caused Iceland to take strong proactive steps to protect their fishery when it was determined that stocks were being over exploited, especially by foreign vessels from Great Britain, West Germany and Belgium. "The tonnage of fish catches had been decreasing since a peak in the 1950's, even though technological improvements allowed greater catches for fishing vessels" (TED) meaning that the overall population must have been decreasing. The start of the Third War was a result of pushing the EEZ to its current 200 mile range, as outlined in the then newly established Law of the Sea. While no actual battles were fought, sides were chosen by neighboring nations, and ships were damaged in collisions and net cutting missions.
International politics were affected by this event, with NATO being forced to mediate the conflict and the use of the UN created Law of the Sea as justification of Iceland's actions before it had been fully established as international law.
Works Cited
Kassebaum, David. (1997). Cod War: Iceland Fishing and Territorial Water Dispute with the UK. Retrieved November 21, 2007, from [http://www.american.edu/TED/icefish.htm]