Examples
United States of America
Background:
- A large developed country with a long coastline and high fish demand
- Fish demand is generally not for subsistence
- GDP: $13.13 trillion USD (2006 est)
Political Style: Democratic, Federal Republic
The United States has an established system of 14 National Marine Sanctuaries, covering an area of 18,000 square miles (4 million hectares). The United States also recently established the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands National Marine Monument, which is currently the largest MPA in the world.
The United States has strongly established fisheries and environmental regulations, and also has national legislation that also addresses the creation of MPAs.
Problems:
1.) Cultural Issues
Fishing has been a longstanding and time-honored part of the American cultural experience. Any measure that would increase fishing restrictions in the short term would likely face significant public opposition, especially among fishermen.
2.) Setting National Priorities
Given current affairs, environmental protection and science are not among top national priorities for either the government or the populace. This limits the funding available for scientific activities, and that available for the establishment of new MPAs.
Suggestions:
1.) Streamline the process for establishing new Marine Protected Areas
Currently, the process for new MPAs has difficult and requires multiple levels of bureaucracy
China
Background:
-A developing country with long coastline (18,000 km) and large fish demand.
-Freshwater resources rank 6th in the world, but the resources per capita is only one fourth of the world's average due to large population. (Chinese Information Office 1998)
-GDP: $10.17 trillion (2006 est.)
Political style: communism, strict government control.
108 marine nature reserves at different levels have been established, covering a total area of 7.69 million hectares (Liu & Qin). Among these reserves, 30 are at provincial level, more than 60 at national level and others at county level. All known endangered marine species are covered (Xinhua 2006).
China has established legal management system for marine resource protection. Its general principle is "conservation first, appropriate exploitation and sustainable development" (Xue 2005).
Problems:
1.) The inefficiency of the management system constrains protection.
The system is divided into national, provincial and municipal levels, and above each level there is a very complex bureaucracy. Various departments have their own management structure and funding sources. Each department is only actively developing part of the department's protected areas, which leads to competition between departments, redundant construction, fragmentation and overall inefficiency. Whether at the national level or in the provincial and municipal levels, it is difficult to achieve the unity of the construction of protected areas planning.
2.) The contradictions between Protection and Development
As a developing country with a large fish demand, the contradiction is notable. Unlike inland nature reserves, marine reserves are divided into different areas for protection and exploitation. This is an apparent conflict of interest to have areas under protection used for both protection and exploitation.
3.) Most protected areas do not have adequate funding, so protection and management is difficult to implement.
The central government only supports national level reserves. Funding for other reserves comes from local government. Because of this, some of the underdeveloped regions are not capable of operating effective management. Most of the funds are only for basic facilitates, but rarely for scientific research. Independent scientific research in these areas is very limited. Due to the lack of operational funds, the hard conditions and the high cost of management, the effectiveness of the management of marine reserves is therefore greatly reduced.
4.) The overall layout of marine reserves stays to be improved
China's state-level distribution of marine nature reserve is extremely uneven; concentrated distribution is a very prominent phenomenon: There are seven national level marine reserves in the northeast side of the Bohai Strait; eight in the southwest of the Beibu Bay and Hainan Island; but only nine along the long coastline from Shandong to Guangdong.
Suggestions:
Based partially on a report from China's Oceanic Administration Institute of Marine Development Strategy---an official department doing research and supplying suggestions and strategies to the government
1.) Adjustment of management system of marine reserves
The system needs to be changed for the future. All of the reserves must be under central government control instead of the local government. But for short term this is not feasible. The temporary solution would be to set up a team with members from all the departments in charge of marine reserves now. Its goal would be connecting all the departments to make the management more effective and practical.
2.) The overall development objectives of marine reserves should explicitly include conservation and development
The goal must be clear in the regulations and policies. Both the local people and the region's economic interests and the natural ecological protection should be taken into consideration.
(a) As to China's rapid tourism development, the institute proposes to research to develop the marine nature reserves into eco-tourism spots and improve the development of tourism management capacity.
(b) Utilizing the research within the reserves to help develop ecologically-friendly aquaculture of surrounding communities
3.) The sources of funding can be both government budget and private sources.
As to reserves especially for endangered species, the government is responsible for the full cost of the reserves' operation; for reserves under local government's control, the government departments at all levels should actively encourage various ways to raise operating funds, and offer necessary assistance, guidance and management. For example, allowing private investment protection on the premise of abidance to the government policy.
4.) Setting up more marine reserves
As a developing country, it is hard to manage marine reserves. So the main point is developing reserves in areas with high species diversity and endangered species. Other possible solutions may be developing provincial level reserves into national ones.