History of Compliance with International Mandates
As our plans involve producing behavioral changes on a global scale, the issue of compliance and enforcement are major factors to consider. Throughout history, there have been multiple instances of international mandates imposed upon the entire international community, with varying degrees of success. In each of the two cases, the probable motivating factors and relevance to our solution are considered.
One of the most significant international agreements from the past century is the Geneva Convention , which dictates the rules of war and attempts to bring a little humanity and order into an otherwise chaotic and barbaric means of settling disagreements between nations. This mandate, accepted by virtually all major countries in the world today, bans certain weapons, such as chemical and biological agents, and guarantees basic rights to soldiers in enemy hands. However, despite the wide-spread acceptance of the Geneva Convention, the primary motivating factor appears to be self-preservation; people follow the rules in the hope that should the tides change, their opponents will treat them decently as well. For those with nothing to lose, like terrorists, the Geneva Convention is simply disregarded. The situation with preserving global fisheries does not pose the same imminent alternative of painful death and torture, making it more difficult to ensure compliance.
Another such international mandate is the Kyoto Protocol. Dealing with the carbon emissions of developed nations, this agreement is concerned with staving off the projected disastrous effects of global warming. Each country receives a pre-determined limit on the amount of carbon its factories and industries release into the atmosphere, prompting nations to find more environmentally friendly means of conducting business. Like the case of the ocean's fisheries, the atmosphere is an international resource that is threatened by the actions of every person on Earth, with consequences that can disrupt the livelihood of the entire world. Unfortunately, conforming to the requirements of the Kyoto Protocol is extremely costly; though potentially beneficial in the long term, the immediate costs often deter nations from complying, or even agreeing to the Kyoto Protocol at all. Furthermore, the current punitive measures stated in the agreement have proved to be worthless; nations that exceed their carbon limit are supposed to do better the year after, and the economic sanctions are minor to nonexistent. Aside from being loosely enforced, the punishment itself is counterintuitive. At present, the economic incentives to ignore the Kyoto Protocol have far outweighed the benefits. Saving the Earth is the ideal goal, but between the economy and the environment, we have observed that most nations will consider financial stability a top priority.
Sources: http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=1307667221&sid=5&Fmt=2&clientId=5482&RQT=309&VName=PQD; http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=801652851&sid=5&Fmt=2&clientId=5482&RQT=309&VName=PQD; http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=784211311&sid=5&Fmt=3&clientId=5482&RQT=309&VName=PQD
International Fishing Industries
China
China is a quickly developing nation that is increasing its demand of fish as its economy expands. With a coastline of about 18,000 km and a huge fish demand, it is an important country to consider when looking at the world's fisheries. China itself has recognized the issue of the world's declining fish populations and has accordingly established legal management systems for marine resource protection. With more than 108 natural reserves that total up to more than 7.69 million hectares and principles such as "conservation first, appropriate exploitation and sustainable development", it seems as if the country is well on its way to reaching sustainability. However, the problem arises when the efficiency of the system management is analyzed. With each department and governmental level having its own structure and laws, there is often competition, fragmentation, miscommunication, and general inefficiency. Similarly, lack of funds allow for minimal research and poor management. As the country continues to develop and expand, the demand for fish will increase as well. In order to prevent a complete fishing collapse in the near future, it is necessary to restructure the management of fishing reserves, analyze the flaws in the current political system, and increase funding to support research and management.
Works Cited
1. Information Office of the State Council Of the People's Republic of China, The Development of China's Marine Programs, May 1998, Beijing
2. Liu Yan, Qiu Jun, Problems and possible solutions of our country's marine reserves, National Oceanic Administration Institute of Marine Development Strategy
3. Xinhua General News Service, China opens marine life biodiversity pretection center, October 11, 2006
4. Guifang Xue, China And International Fisheries Law And Policy, 2005
Economics
Fish have played an integral role in the development of many economies. For example, the American colonies were able to develop financial independence with the abundance of cod, and the Vikings of Iceland made a fortune from the wealth of fish in the region. Now, centuries later, fish are still key players in the global economy. As developing countries have grown and consumers are becoming richer, the demand for fish is shaping the markets for seafood across the globe. Global consumption of fish has doubled in the past thirty years, with more than 90% of the developing world contributing to that increase. As more countries become dependent on this new staple, more economies have become based around the fisheries as well. In fact, the net exports of fish and fish products from developing countries to developed countries is worth well over $17 billion. Many of the developing countries' economies have grown due to the demand of fish. Although a fishery collapse is imminent, it is necessary to consider the economic impact certain policies and changes will have on the world economy.
Works Cited
Kurlansky, Mark. Cod: A Biography of the Fish that Changed the World, 1997, Walker Publishing Company, Inc. USA
Delgado, Christopher, International Food Policy Research Institute, 2020 Vision Food Policy Report, Outlook for Fish to 2020: Meeting Global Demand �
Policies
Whaling: History of the Zero-Catch Limit Moratorium
In 1986, the International Whale Commission (IWC) decided that catch limits for all whales would be set to zero due to disagreements about catch limits for unprotected species of cetaceans and also to allow time for more scientific research so that it might be possible to have future catch limits other than zero (IWC, 2007a). Of the seventy-eight nations under the IWC's regulations, three countries only three countries have continued with whale hunts: Iceland, Norway, and Japan.
Iceland initially agreed to the moratorium set by the IWC and continued hunting under scientific permit. Three years later, the government ended all scientific endeavors involving lethal whale kills but maintained exports of whale meat to Japan. In 1992, Iceland left the IWC only to return in 2002; however, with the rejoin, Iceland claimed exemption from the zero catch limit set by the IWC (Muller, 2007). After a year, scientific whaling resumes only to turn into full-scale commercial hunting in 2006. In late August of 2007, the government signals an end to commercial whaling due to a lack of consumer demand (IFAW, 2007).
Norway did not put an end to its commercial whaling industry until two years after the IWC implemented the zero catch limit, only to continue its whaling practices under scientific permit. In 1993, commercial hunting resumes under claims that Norway is not bound by the IWC moratorium (Muller, 2007).
Japan complied with the zero catch limit moratorium set by IWC and continued its whaling efforts as scientific research. Each year, an attempt was made to lift the catch limit but was never passed. Several small island nations have been recruited in this effort; however, sufficient numbers have not been rallied to pass such a resolution (Muller, 2007). Japan expanded its scientific whaling program to include more Minke whales and endangered Fin, Sei, and Humpback species in 2006.
Ocean sanctuaries have been set up to protect whales from prosecution that they are not able to deal with, namely human hunting. The first was set up in the Antarctic Ocean in 1932. The Indian Ocean Sanctuary was set up in 1979. In 1994, the Southern Ocean Sanctuary was adopted by the IWC and will be reviewed every ten years. Proposals for a South Atlantic and South Pacific Sanctuaries have been submitted; the three-quarters majority vote has not been met for either region (IWC, 2007b).
Works Cited
International Fund for Animal Welfare. (2007). Iceland signals an end to its commercial whaling enterprise due to lack of consumer demand. Retrieved November 19, 2007, from http:///www.ifaw.org/ifaw/general/default.aspx?oid=220372.
International Whaling Commission. (2007). Commission Information. Retrieved November 19, 2007, from http://www.iwcoffice.org/commission/iwcmain.htm.
International Whaling Commission. (2007). Whale Sanctuaries. Retrieved November 19, 2007, from http://www.iwcoffice.org/conservation/sanctuaries.htm.
Muller, George C. (2007). Timeline of Commercial Whaling. Retrieved November 19, 2007, from http://www.cgeorgemuller.com/timeline.htm.