06. Environment

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Introduction to Coastal Zone Management   

 WHAT IS A COASTAL ZONE?

 Source: visitmaui.com
For all the vast miles of open waves, for all the leagues of deep, dark water, some of the most important waters are those within several hundred miles of the coasts.

A coastal zone is often described as the coastal ocean and the land adjacent to it.  Despite its relatively modest surface area, the coastal zone is one of the most geochemically and biologically active areas of the biosphere.  For example, it accounts for at least 15% of oceanic primary production, 80% of organic matter burial, 90% of sedimentary mineralization, and 50% of the deposition of calcium carbonate. It also provides 90% of the world fish catch and its economic value has been recently estimated to comprise at least 40% of the total economic value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital. Additionally, coastal areas contain large amounts of biodiversity. However, this region is changing rapidly under human influences; about 40% of the world's population lives within 100 kilometers of the coastline. As a result, our goal is to create solutions that would mitigate the effects of these negative influences on coastal habitats and wild fish stocks. (Gattuso et al. 2007)

In this section, we will treat the coastal zone primarily as the freshwater bodies that drain directly to the sea, the land area influencing those water bodies, and waters on the continental shelf, especially estuarine waters (where salt and freshwater mix).

WHAT IS THE PROBLEM?

Source: hickerphoto.com

The hydrosphere on earth is a constantly changing, dynamic system; water flows, evaporates, condenses, is stored, and is absorbed. Events in one waterway affect downstream waters and the ocean. The impacts of coastal zones on marine ecosystems and fisheries are profound not only because of the incredible biodiversity and biomass in coastal waters, but also because of the various ecosystem functions that coastal areas perform. Coastal and estuarine areas are often critical spawning and recruitment grounds; damages to the ecosystem and to fisheries there can have wide-ranging effects on populations elsewhere. Furthermore, many fish migrate upstream into fresh waters to spawn (anadromous fish, like shad) or live in freshwater and spawn in the ocean (catadromous fish, like eels); changes in water quality or physical habitat can destroy these populations by decimating their ability to reproduce. The connections between freshwater, estuarine, and marine areas are many and are not yet fully understood. However, we do know that creatures require food, water, and a place to live for survival. Without an environment in which its basic needs are fulfilled, an organism cannot survive. As such, our group proposes to maximize habitat and water quality in these areas so as to minimize fish mortality from environmental factors.

There are several classes of problems that affect habitat quality and fisheries. They include:

(1)    Point source pollution [Link to Child page 2]

(2)    Non-point source pollution [Link to child page 3]

(3)    Obstructions to migration [Link to Child page 4]

(4)    Habitat destruction or alteration [link to child page 5]

(5)    Invasive species [link to child page 6]

PROPOSED SOLUTIONS:

(1)   Water Quality Assessment and Regulation [ link to child page 7]

(2)   Establishment of Riparian Buffers [link to child page 8]

(3)   Establishment and Protection of Wetlands and other Fragile Coastal Ecosystems [link to child page 9]

(4)   Dam Planning and Regulation [link to child page 10]

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 Point Source Pollution:

The most easily identifiable form of environmental contamination is point source pollution. Point source pollution occurs when contaminants are introduced to an ecosystem at a specific location and point in time. Common examples include:

-         Chemical waste dumping

-         Thermal discharge (discharge of hot water into a receiving body; often the water was used as coolant)

-         Oil spills

-         Waste-water disposal !stormflow.jpg|width=651,height=434!Source: USGS

The effects of these various materials in aquatic ecosystems vary depending on the chemical or contaminant involved and the amount of the discharge; the regulation of discharges into water is an important aspect of the preservation of overall water quality.

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 Non-point Source Pollution:

Photo from NOAA

Non-point source pollution arises when contaminants are carried into waterways by natural processes, like runoff or air currents. A common example is when runoff carries fertilizers from farms into waterways. Harder to pinpoint - because the source covers a large land area - and more difficult to regulate than point source pollution, especially because of the lack of a single responsible party, non-point source pollution is a serious and insidious threat to ecosystem health. Examples of major contaminants include:

Source: USGS and Barbara Hite

-         Suspended sediment

Sediments occur naturally and are integral components of aquatic systems. Nearly all waters contain suspended sediments that may be of physical, chemical or biological origin, and the quantities of these sediments usually vary with season. This natural variation in suspended sediment concentrations occurs typically in response to natural events (i.e. rainfall and snow melting) which increase the flow and sediment levels of the waterways. As a result, in order to ensure their survival, aquatic species have adapted their life cycles to accommodate these natural variations in the environment (Birtwell 1999). However, the input of suspended sediment from catastrophic events such as floods and volcanic eruptions, and anthropogenic activities such as dredging, mining, and releasing water from dams, are recognized as potential threats to the well-being of marine biota.

Although sediment, and its associated effects on water clarity and turbidity, is a natural component of aquatic systems, it is apparent from scientific research that there is an increased risk to the survival of aquatic organisms when sediment levels exceed background values for a particular period of time. There are many ways which an excessive amount of sediment might be harmful to a fishery. These include:

A)     Acting directly on the fish swimming in the water in which solids are suspended, either by killing them or reducing their growth rate, resistance to disease, etc.  Increased turbidity and decreased light penetration alter fish feeding and schooling practices, leading to reduced survival. The high concentrations of sediments also irritate the gills of fish and can cause death.  In addition, sediment can destroy the protective mucus covering the eyes and scales of fish, making fish more susceptible to infections.

B)      Preventing the successful development of fish eggs and larvae. For example, especially under reduced flow conditions, settleable solids in river waters have the potential to be deposited in streams, where they may exert a detrimental influence on fish eggs in spawning beds.

C)      Modifying natural ecosystems.  High concentrations of sediments can fill spaces in the river bottom, displacing or smothering plants, invertebrates, and insects in the river bed. This directly affects the food source of fish, and can result in smaller and fewer fish.

D)     Carrying toxic agricultural and industrial compounds, which can cause abnormalities or death in fish. (Environment Canada 2001) In order to facilitate the protection of aquatic organisms from elevated levels of sediment in their environment, guidelines and criteria have been formulated. As early as 1964, the European Inland Fisheries Advisory Commission (EIFAC) put forth such guidelines for the protection of fishery resources, which are as follows: 

<25 ppm* of suspended solids - no evidence of harmful effects onfish and fisheries
25 - 80 ppm - it should be possible to maintain good to moderate fisheries, however the yield would be somewhat diminished relative to waters with <25 ppm suspended solids
80 - 400 ppm - these waters are unlikely to support good freshwater fisheries and
400 ppm - suspended solids - at best, only poor fisheries are likely to be found.

• Parts per million approximate (mg- L--1 ) Numerous criteria and guidelines have been formulated since then, and more recent ones have been based on the analyses of Newcombe and MacDonald (1991), Anderson et al. (1996), and Newcombe and Jensen (1996) and Caux et al. (1997). These authors state that aquatic biota respond to both concentration of suspended sediments and the duration of exposure to them, and relate the two through an "index of pollution intensity" or "stress index" (Birtwell 1999). Newcombe and MacDonald's 1991 paper recommended the use of a "stress index" that is "calculated by taking the natural logarithm of the product of concentration and duration"  and would provide resource managers with a method to predict the effects of pollution episodes on aquatic biota. The British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Lands, and Parks (BCMELP) (1998), and the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME) (1999) guidelines are the most recent documents on this topic, and they are based, in part, on the publication by Caux et al. (1997).            

It is recognized that there is some level of risk to aquatic organisms depending on the sediment levels discharged and the sensitivity of the organisms in the receiving stream. However, scientists have concluded that these impacts would be best assessed using the concentration of suspended sediment above background levels. The levels of risk and the corresponding concentrations of sediment follow:

Source: Birtwell 1999

It is concluded that elevated levels of sediment may be harmful to fish, and in addition, negatively impact their habitat. Criteria, guidelines and recommendations, though formulated by many different government agencies, tend to be mutually supportive. At the same time they have application limitations, especially relating to the protection of aquatic organisms from the effects of sediment concentrations of tens of mg- L-1. Application of the criteria must be done while recognizing potential impacts on aquatic organisms at both the lethal and the sublethal level. Particle size and nature of the sediment must be considered as well (Birtwell 1999).

-         Excess nutrients

Nutrients are required by aquatic ecosystems for primary production; plants, often algae, absorb these nutrients and use them to grow. These plants form the base of the food chain in aquatic ecosystems. However, excess nutrients, especially nitrogenous compounds, are carried by runoff from agricultural areas and cause a phenomenon called eutrophication. The nutrients over-fertilize the ecosystem and cause an explosion in algae population--an algal bloom. When this huge mass of algae dies, however, it consumes oxygen in its decomposition, lowering the dissolved oxygen content for the waterway in general. Because aquatic organisms cannot remove oxygen from air or from water molecules, they rely upon oxygen dissolved in the water to survive; if this oxygen is depleted, the aquatic community essentially asphyxiates. Eutrophication has been a major problem in estuarine areas, like the Chesapeake Bay in Maryland, USA and continues to be a problem in freshwater lakes and ponds as well.

-         Metals

Trace metals are required for aquatic life but in higher concentrations heavy metals such as iron, lead, mercury, aluminum, and magnesium are toxic to fish, especially at low pHs (PA FBC). One reason metal toxicity is such a problem is that no natural processes exist to neutralize or remove them (Chapman, 1996). Metals also tend to accumulate in bottom sediments (Chapman, 1996), which presents a problem if those sediments are later disturbed. Industrial wastewater discharges (point source) and mining are common metal sources, although metals like lead (from automobiles) can also come from atmospheric deposition. Aluminum, cadmium, chromium, copper, iron, mercury, manganese, nickel, lead, zinc, arsenic, and selenium are the commonly monitored "metals" although beryllium, thallium, vanadium, antimony, and molybdenum are also very toxic and important to monitor if a pollutant source is likely to discharge them (Chapman,1996).

-         Detergents, pesticides, industrial toxins, pharmaceuticals, etc.

There are a variety of other toxins that can harm fish, even if present only in small quantities. Some toxins, such as PCBs and chlordane, are not only toxic but also tend to bioaccumulate, meaning that organisms high on the food chain ingest large amounts of the toxin through their prey and then have it build up in their bodies. Not only is this detrimental to fish and ecosystem health, but it is also a danger to consumers, who are at the top of the food chain. Health advisories are in place in many parts of the United States for high levels of mercury, PCBs, and chlordane in many fish and other aquatic species.  Other contaminants, such as pesticides, can have severe effects on aquatic ecosystems by poisoning the most sensitive organisms. There is also evidence that pharmaceutical products, especially hormones, that are released into the water cause health problems in many species (Boxall et al, 2003). Other ecosystem-damaging contaminants like detergents, petroleum products, and industrial toxins also can be carried into waterways.

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Obstructions to Migration:

DAMS

I.  Significance: Humans need fifty liters of water per person per day on average (World Commission on Dams, 2000).  Less than .007% of the water on earth is liquid fresh water that is regularly cycled and renewed (Human Appropriation).
 
The world population is increasing at an unprecedented rate and urbanization is occurring on a similarly impressive scale. These increases will result in a larger demand for limited water resources; due to uneven water distribution, it is expected that one-third of water-stressed countries will experience severe water shortages in the next century (WCD, 2000).  Currently, most water is used for agricultural purposes, especially in developing countries. Currently, dams are a tool for obtaining the water we so desperately need.

In the 1970s, there was a major boom in dam construction, especially in China, the United States, Japan, Spain, and India (WCD, 2000). Currently, of the thousands of large dams two thirds are in developing countries (WCD, 2000). These dams fulfill a variety of functions including but not limited to water storage, hydroelectric power generation, and flood control. The figure at the right shows the distribution of dams by functions. One third of countries rely on hydropower for over half their energy needs (WCD, 2000). Overall, it is easy to see the incredible importance and economic impact of dams. However, there are many environmental and social problems associated with dams. Dams have a significant impact on the marine fisheries, either directly by destroying spawning habitat or blocking migration or indirectly by increasing pressures on marine fisheries.

II.  Issues:  The problems associated with large dams can be broken down several categories:

1)      Changes to the chemical and physical properties of a river

2)      Biotic changes to the ecosystem resulting from the aforementioned riverine changes

3)      Human impact due to change in either the river or ecosystem

According to the World Commission on Dams, 46% of the 106 primary watersheds on earth are affected by dams. These effects can include temperature changes (water held in a reservoir warms, while water which is released over the dam's head is cooled) and dissolved oxygen level changes (the warmer water in a dam's reservoir will have lower dissolved oxygen levels resulting from higher water temperatures and slower water velocity, while water below the dam may become super-saturated with oxygen and poison fish). These changes often favor invasive species, which can then outcompete the native biota. Dams also change the natural flow regimes, which are important triggers for biological cycles. Flow levels can enhance or suppress reproductive success for many species, as well serving to redistribute substrates (material comprising the river bottom) and bed-loads (large particles carried along the bottom) (Young, 1997). Furthermore, starvation of sediments because of retention by dams can alter the substrate composition downstream with huge effects on fish; studies on the Colorado River indicated that natural reproduction of fish species was suppressed because sandbar formation had ceased due to a lack of sediments (Young, 1997). The WCD reports that in many cases wetlands dry out and recharge of groundwater is diminished. Besides "trapping" water behind them, dams also act as particle traps, holding back nutrients and sediment. The downstream ecosystems that rely on these nutrients can suffer severely; the crash of Kokanee salmon was attributed to the drastic decrease in nutrient loading caused by the construction of two dams (Wuest). The changes in sediment transport can heavily influence the channel, floodplain, and delta morphology. In coastal areas, the erosion caused by waves is no longer counteracted by deposition of sediment; the WCD reports that the coastline of Togo and Benin has decreased by 10-15 meters per year after the Akosombo Dam on the Volta River was completed. There are indications that erosion may also result in a lack of floodplain fertility.

One of the largest problems dams cause for fish is obstruction of their migrations; dams provide large, physical barriers to passage up and down rivers. Diadromous fish, which live in salt water and spawn in fresh water or vice versa, are in many cases entirely unable to reach their spawning grounds. Salmon and shad have died out in areas due to dam construction (WCD, 2000); in the United States, shad populations rebounded only after extensive stocking and fish passage efforts (Richardson); in the Caspian Sea, sturgeon must be stocked because dams entirely obstruct their reproduction (WCD, 2000). Dams can also obstruct the movements of aquatic insects and larval clams (glochidia); reductions in these populations, which serve as food for organisms higher on the food chain, can have indirect effects on fish populations. Dams have been reported as the largest cause of freshwater species extinction (WCD, 2000). Loss of freshwater species as a food source (6% of fish caught are from fresh water) may result in more pressure being placed on marine species, so it is important to regard the loss of those species as important to the fate of marine fisheries (WCD, 2000).  It is estimated that 20% of freshwater fish have become extinct, endangered, or threatened in recent years.

However, it is not just by obstructing fish passage that dams affect marine fisheries. Dams have been shown to decrease catches of fish in upstream portions of rivers such as the Senegal and Niger Rivers, Nile Delta, and Zambezi River which again may put more stress on marine fisheries (WCD, 2000). Downstream, changes in flows of fresh water and in nutrient levels can influence the estuarine habitats where many marine fish come to spawn. Lowered nutrient levels can result in lowered overall productivity from a diminished primary food source (i.e. less primary production), as occurred with the Aswan High Dam in Egypt (WCD, 2000). Furthermore, increases in salinity from lessened freshwater flows can allow marine predators to invade, lowering recruitment rates (WCD, 2000).  The overall effects of these changes can be significant; in the Zambezi Delta, dam-related changes cause an estimated $10 million annual loss to the shrimp fishery (WCD, 2000).

Other problems associated with dams that are not related to fisheries at large but are large-scale impacts of dams, include displacement of native people (40-80 million) and a diminished ability of native people to collect the river's resources (WCD, 2000). Dam reservoirs also emit greenhouses gases, at times at levels larger than the area in a pre-dammed state, which can be a factor when dealing with climate change issues and legislation (WCD, 2000). It is also notable that in solving these issues, international politics may come heavily into play, as 261 watershed cross political boundaries and water security issues have been heated in the past (WCD, 2000).

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Habitat Destruction or Alteration:

Conversion of coastal ecosystems for agriculture or aquaculture has adverse effects on marine fisheries because it destroys the habitat of exploited fish stocks. For example, conversion of mangroves in a number of South and Southeast Asian countries during the mid 1990s caused an increased risk of diseases in wild stock. It also significantly reduced the recruitment and survival rates of the stocks. Since some 90% of fish stocks depend on coastal habitat for at least parts of their life cycle, this habitat is critical. (Perrings 2000)

Areas of special concern include wetlands, coral reefs and mangrove swamps.

Wetlands:

According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), a wetland is an area where water covers the soil, or is present either at or near the surface of the soil for significant portions of the year, including during the growing season.  Wetlands act as the transition between the land and the water. The hydrology of the site plays an integral role in the determining the composition of the soil and the types of aquatic life that live there. Wetlands are unique ecosystems as they support both terrestrial and aquatic life. The prolonged presence of water creates conditions that favor the growth of specially adapted plants (hydrophytes) and promote the development of characteristic wetland (hydric) soils. !aerial2LG.jpg!Source: USGS

Wetland soils are saturated long enough during the growing season to create an anaerobic (low oxygen) state. The wetland soil becomes so saturated with water that it cannot hold much, if any, oxygen.

               Wetlands are often called "nurseries of life", meaning they support thousands of species, both terrestrial and aquatic. But they do more than just provide a habitat for these animals. When rivers overflow, wetlands help absorb the flood waters, which can help reduce property damage and loss.

                Rainwater runs off and brings exposed soil particles toward larger bodies of water. In water, sediment may either settle to the bottom or remain suspended in the water column. Settled sediments may destroys the spawning grounds for fish and may suffocate fish eggs. Sediments may also smother macro-invertebrate benthos (bottom dwellers)---an important source of food for fish. Suspended sediments also affect aquatic organisms. Sediment makes water more opaque so the water temperature increases. It can also abrade fish gills and make feeding difficult for fish that rely heavily on sight to find food.

Wetlands generally slow water velocity, which allows much of the suspended sediment to settle out (slow-moving water can transport a smaller sediment load). Plants within the wetland also mechanically slow sediments. This helps prevent the sedimentation (or mud-clogging) of streams, lakes, or rivers.

                Runoff entering wetlands contains much more than just sediments. Pesticides, excess nutrients from fertilizers, bacteria, salts from winter road maintenance, and other chemicals also wash from the land and enter our waterways. Studies have found that after this polluted water has flowed through a wetland it becomes much cleaner. Wetlands, with their dense plant life and unique anaerobic environment, can protect downstream waters from these substances by using the extra nutrients for plant growth and by storing and breaking down the chemicals. This filtering process improves the quality of the water for wildlife and humans. (Dietz)

From an economic perspective, about 75% of the nation's commercially important species of marine fish and shellfish, and 80 to 90% of recreationally important species, are dependent on shallow inshore waters, such as bays, estuaries, and rivers flowing to the sea, for their survival (Vymazal, 2007). However, the importance of wetlands is perhaps best shown by example:

Three Gorges Dam in China In China, the Yangtze River branches out into a broad estuary that stretches 655 kilometers into the East China Sea, and forms one of the largest continental shelves in the world. Over half of the Yangtze's annual sediment load is deposited in the estuary. The health of the estuary depends on the delivery of this sediment because a significant relationship exists between intertidal wetland growth rate and riverine sediment supply. Yet, due to the Three Gorges project and other dams, the sediment accumulation rate in all reservoirs on the river has increased. This is causing erosion of the wetland habitat there, which provides nurseries for fish and resting areas for migratory birds and is considered one of the world's most important wetland ecosystems. There is also concern about the impact the project will have on biological diversity. The baiji dolphin, the ancient river sturgeon, and the finless porpoise depend on the Yangtze for their survival. The population of Siberian cranes in Poyang Lake will also be affected by the dam (Cleveland 2007). 

Coral Reefs !GrecianRocks.1965.jpg|width=547,height=358!A star coral. Source: USGS

Coral reefs are unique and beautiful ecosystems. They have the most species per unit area of any marine environment and hold perhaps 1 to 8 million undiscovered species (Reaka-Kudla, 1997). These species hold great promise for new pharmaceuticals (NOAA).  Coral reefs also provide goods and services worth $375 billion per year, despite covering less than 1% of the Earth's surface (Costanza et al, 1997). Developing countries rely on coral reefs for approximately one fourth of their total fish catch (Jameson et al, 1995). Coral reefs offer benefits to people living in coastal areas by acting as buffers to wave action; they may also protect coastal wetlands (NOAA).

Currently, wetlands are threatened by many natural and anthropogenic forces, particularly pollution from land (NOAA). Eutrophication--the overfertilization of aquatic ecosystems--affects coral reefs particularly badly because the algal growth can smother the coral (Jones and Endean, 1976). Oil spills can negatively affect coral spawning (Bryant, et al, 1998), and practices such as harvesting for aquariums, blast fishing, careless diving, cyanide fishing, and trawling also destroy coral reefs (NOAA).

Mangrove Swamps !ellen1.jpg!Source: USGS

According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, mangroves are coastal wetlands found in tropical and subtropical regions (U.S. EPA 2006). Mangroves are characterized by trees or shrubs that have the common trait of growing in shallow and muddy salt water or brackish waters, especially along quiet shorelines and in estuaries. These halophytic trees are able to thrive in salt water conditions because of specialized rooting structures (such as prop roots and pneumatophores), specialized reproduction (vivipary or live birth) and the ability to exclude or excrete salt (Lee County Government).  In North America, mangroves are found from the southern tip of Florida along the Gulf Coast to Texas. The importance of mangroves has been well established. They support a wide diversity of animals and vegetation since these estuarine swamps are constantly replenished with nutrients transported by fresh water runoff from the land and flushed by the ebb and flow of the tides (U.S. EPA 2006). They also play a pivotal role in the life cycles of aquatic organisms. For example, they function as nurseries for a variety of marine biota.   Seventy-five percent of the game fish and 90% of the commercial species in south Florida depend on mangrove ecosystems (Law et al.). In addition, these coastal wetlands are valued for their protection and stabilization of low-lying coastal lands against the threats of storm winds, waves, and floods. The amount of protection afforded by mangroves depends upon the width of the forest (Lee County Government). Although mangroves are increasingly threatened by human activities (such as dam construction and mangrove conversions), efforts are underway to enhance the protection of these threatened and valuable ecosystems (U.S. EPA 2006).

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(5) Invasive Species !1354035_lg.jpg|width=194,height=176!A seemingly innocuous invader, the zebra mussel, has devastated fisheries and industries in its host lands. Source: USGS !db_snakehead0031.jpg!The invasive snakehead. Source: USGS, Artist: Susan Trammell

Invasive species are non-native species that have been introduced to a waterway and that have been able to establish themselves in that ecosystem at the expense of other species. Increase in invasive species is correlated with a decrease in overall biodiversity and loss of ecosystem services and is a major concern in coastal ecosystems (Worm et al, 2006). Invasive species often upset the entire ecosystem balance, driving less competitive species into extinction and fundamentally altering the food web. High profile examples include the proliferation of zebra mussels in the Great Lakes--which have caused the decline in many native species and caused many industrial problems--and the Nile perch, which caused the extinction of hundreds of aquatic species in Lake Victoria. Invasive species are listed as the second greatest source of species extinctions (Wilcove et al, 1998).The figures at the right illustrate the interrelations between biodiversity, ecosystem services, and risks; species invasions is shown at the far right under "risks."
 
Invasive species are often transported via the ballast water ships sometimes carry to help keep them level.  Water is taken from the starting point of a journey and then released at the end point--along with any organisms living inside. High risk ballast in regards to transport of invasives is water taken onboard in a freshwater or estuarine port as those organisms have a high chance of surviving in their new environment (Portland University, 2006). Invasives are also released intentially-as with unwanted pet release or through aquarium dumping--such as the release of the red-eared slider in the United States.

An important aspect of the invasive species problem is that once an invasive is present in an estem, it is often impossible to remove it; thus, it is essential to prevent invasive species from arriving in the first place.

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Water Quality Assessment and Regulation

In order to determine the management techniques for a specific waterway in respect to water quality, it is necessary to know the current and desired water quality levels for the waterway; we cannot solve a problem if we cannot first identify the problem. As such, it is necessary for each country to establish a system of water quality monitoring and a set of regulations regarding water quality levels. !RPE_AL_Dist5_lg.jpg!Source: USGS

                The water quality regulations should set:

(1)    minimum standards for levels of various contaminants

(2)    biological standards for water quality

(3)    an anti-degradation policy (i.e. a waterway's state cannot decrease in quality)

The water quality should be measured both by concentrations or levels of contaminants as well as by biological measures.  The use of biological, in addition to chemical, measures is necessary because biological measures are better able to detect brief events.  For example, spilled chemicals could wash down a river before a chemical measurement could be performed to detect them, but the presence of dead fish or other organisms would still indicate that something had happened.

Furthermore, a permitting process for activities that are likely to cause environmental harm (such as earthmoving operations or construction and discharges into waterways) should be instituted so that the environmental risks may be assessed and so that plans for development can be made sensitive to environmental needs. The permitting process allows the government to have a say in how the activity is carried out and to set regulations specifically for that project.

As indicated by the WHO (World Health Organization) in their report on water quality assessments, the choice of which water quality parameters to use can depend on the use of the waterway or on the expected pollution sources.  We recommend that water quality be tested regularly in estuaries and major waterways that drain directly to the ocean; in all cases the water should be clean enough to support aquatic life. Initial attention should be given to the largest waterways and those that are expected to be highly  polluted (i.e. those traveling through an industrial sector or city), so that problem areas and areas of great importance are addressed first. Furthermore, by testing a larger body, the effects of tributary streams are taken into account, as those contaminants will still be present in the larger waterway.  These tests should measure the following parameters recommended by the WHO for aquatic ecosystems (see chart below).  From the data collected, the state of the waterway can be assessed and various solutions can be implemented.

    For parameters that do not meet standards, the source of the contamination should be identified. For point source pollutants that were discharged before the implementation of the law, the perpetrators should be notified of their infractions and ordered to stop the discharges.  Polluters should also be given a time frame (suggested time is a year) in which the pollutant's effects must be mediated in order for business to continue. For point source pollutants that were discharged after the implementation of the law, the perpetrator must pay a fine to cover the costs of the environmental damage.           

    For non-point source pollutants, there are several ways to reduce the effects. Non-point source pollutants are carried into the water by runoff. Water travelling over the land picks up soil and other contaminants and carries them into the waterway. To reduce the concentrations of these contaminants, maintenance and reestablishment of riparian buffers (vegetative areas alongside waterways) is an effective solution, as is maintaining and reestablishing wetlands.

                Biological indexes and standards are independent of the pollutant source; they merely categorize the species composition of an area by abundance of species sensitive to pollutants or environmental disturbance, abundance of species somewhat sensitive, and abundance of species tolerant of such disturbance. The complexity of the indexes can vary, but the underlying principle is that a healthy waterway has a variety of species of all three categories, and impaired waterways have a smaller variety and the species that are present fall into the latter categories. If biological monitoring is considered too expensive, it is possible to choose a method of sampling that is less expensive by sampling fish and large macroinvertebrates, since effects will eventually manifest at these levels; studies by the EPA have shown these studies to be more cost effective (EPA, 1988). However, it is important to note that small amounts of contaminants will affect the young and most sensitive organisms first, which may not necessarily be the fish. Monitoring of the habitat may also be valuable in assessing changes.

The EPA's guide to establishing a biological index shows an example of how such a system may be implemented (http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/biocriteria/States/estuaries/estuaries.pdf).

                Discharges into waterways cannot be allowed to change the quality of water to levels below those specified in the standards. Furthermore, the non-degradation policy forbids decline in the quality of water in a waterway that exceed the minimum standards. To effect this, before a discharge is to be implemented, water quality measures should be taken to determine the baseline water quality of the waterway; note that water quality sampling parameters should be expanded or modified to accommodate pollutants that are likely to result from the industry in question. Both chemical and biological indexes will be used. Subsequent water quality measurements should be taken multiple times per year both above and below the discharge site; emphasis will be given to the biological indexes as it is more robust to temporal change, as aforementioned. If the discharge is found to be in the "pollutant" range, the company will be fined an amount sufficient to cover the environmental damage and proportional to the damage caused; the fine will be used to remediate the damage caused by the pollutant. Non-discharge offenses (i.e. dumping by a citizen or other unplanned discharges) will be dealt with in the same manner.

                However, extraction of materials from ecosystems is also an issue in coastal zone management. Extraction of sediments or other mining operations causes severe changes in substrate composition and the overall habitat, not to mention the possible pollutant re-suspension involved in these operations (i.e. of sediments). Extraction of water (either surface water extractions or ground water extractions, as from wells) itself also changes the aquatic ecosystem in many ways--both from a physical and chemical standpoint. Information about the effects of dams on water quality is [here-LINK TO DAMS PAGE].

                To address these aspects of regulation, research needs to be conducted to the determine the relationship between the status of the physical environment and the functioning of the ecosystem. For example, with dredging or sediment extraction, the functional role of the substrate formations should be investigated to discover if the extraction would negatively impact critical spawning or other ecosystem services and if any predicted damages can be redressed. Findings of such studies should then be applied to minimize disturbance to the environment if the activity still needs to occur; the principle of "avoid, minimize, compensate" as advocated in the U.S. policy towards wetlands applies here.

                For water withdrawals (or large water discharges) we propose the use of IFIM (Incremental Flow Incremental Methodology) to evaluate the effects of the withdrawal before it takes place, so that planning and permitting can take place before withdrawals begin. The IFIM model can be used to predict how changes in flow will affect various other water quality parameters like temperature and how these changes will affect fish populations (Young, 1997). The results of the model can be used in the permitting process to make initial suggestions and limitations; however, regulation should be elastic enough so that withdrawal limitations can be changed if harm is observed. Special attention should be given to processes which may fundamentally alter sediment and nutrient transport, as alterations can negatively impact estuarine and lower waters to a great extent, as discussed in the page on dams [LINK TO DAMS PAGE].

Shipping Regulation Shipping is a major source of contamination in coastal areas.  Ballast water, for example, is a major transport mechanism for invasive species, while oil tankers can spill their cargoes. Shipping regulations should be created to minimize these risks.

Invasive Species Transport !01178_lr.jpg|width=477,height=403!Sediment in a ballast tank; this sediment can host aquatic invasives. Source: NOAA

Ships traveling internationally should be required to exchange their ballast water at sea, past the continental shelf.  The salinity and temperature differences between fresh or estuarine waters and the open ocean are great enough to kill most potential invasives. (Portland State University, 2006)

Future research should look explore alternative forms of ballast that minimize the risk of invasive transport.

However, many invasive species travel via other means---including intentional release such as the introduction of the red-eared slider in the United States  (PA's 10 Least Wanted). To prevent this, strict trade regulations should be placed that prohibit the transport of non-native species between countries and between waterways within the same country to another (PA's 10 Least Wanted).

Tanker Spill Prevention

                Regulations should be created to restrict which types of boats may carry hazardous materials into  or on a nation's waters. The regulations should include requirements for hull strength and features to prevent a spill if the ship runs aground or hits rocks. Ships should also be required to have up-to-date communications and navigation equipment.  Shipping lanes for oil tankers that are safer or easier to navigate would also be beneficial. Ships should also be required to have an emergency response plan for the event of an oil spill that needs to be approved by the State whose waters are traversed.  Appropriate government agencies should also have oil spill response plans.  Finally, legislation should be passed that assigns responsibility for oil spills to the entity possessing the oil at the time of the spill. (adapted from the EPA's Oil Pollution Prevention and Response Final Rule, 2002)

[end of child page 7]

[child page 8] 

Establishment of Riparian Buffers:

Riparian BuffersImportance:               

Riparian buffers provide various important stream functions.

(1)    Leaves that fall into the water are a food source for aquatic animals.

(2)    Branches and roots provide shelter for in-stream organisms.

(3)    Overhead leaf cover shades water and keeps it cool, improving fish habitat.

(4)    Roots hold stream banks in place and prevent erosion.

(5)    Vegetation slows water velocity, thereby reducing runoff-induced erosion and also allowing particulates to settle out.

(6)    Soils and root systems filter nutrients and pollutants from runoff (especially from agriculture and residential areas) before they reach reach surface waters (Haberstock, 2000). !DCP00013.JPG!The vegetation on the sides of this waterway is an example of a riparian buffer. Source: USGS

These functions are not only important to the biota that lives in these regions year round, but also to anadromous species that come to spawn. For example, salmon require clean gravel for spawning; if silt settles over the gravel, it not only destroys suitable spawning substrate but can also smother eggs and the invertebrates that juveniles feed upon (Haberstock, 2000). Haberstock also reports that branches and other woody structures provide places for invertebrate prey to live, as well as structural habitat and varied flow patterns that are important for salmon. The improved water quality and cooling effects provided by riparian buffers are also critical (Haberstock, 2000).

Riparian buffers also serve to filter water by forcing it to decelerate.  As non-point source pollutants are difficult to regulate and control, it is critical to provide rivers with a defense against runoff contaminants.

Riparian buffers should be established along rivers; the width should be determined based on the criteria detailed below.

The width of the buffer depends on many factors, especially the slope of the land (steeper slopes require wider buffers, since steeper slopes allow water to flow faster and water's ability to carry sediments increases exponentially with volume (Chapman, 1996)), the permeability of the soil (less permeable soils require wider buffers because water takes longer to infiltrate), and the presence of overland water sources--like intermittent streams or gullies-which can render small buffers ineffective (Haberstock, 2000). The type of vegetation-such as wooded or ground level vegetation can influence buffer efficacy (Haberstock, 2000). Buffer width is measured from the floodplain edge (Haberstock, 2000). Haberstock also notes that wetlands in these areas should be preserved, because they serve to fix nitrogen and retain contaminants and sediments; the issue of wetlands preservation is detailed on another page (LINK TO WETLANDS PAGE?). Ideally, a consult should be taken to determine the ideal width for an area.

However, if it is not economically feasible to establish a buffer of the recommended width, it is still beneficial to establish a riparian buffer of a smaller width. Studies have found that buffers of 20 feet of native grasses can remove up to 90% of nutrients and 80% of sediments in agricultural areas (Lutz). Furthermore, a riparian buffer does not mean that no human activity or industry can take place in these zones; for example, selective logging can take place if best-management practices are followed (for example, see http://mdc4.mdc.mo.gov/documents/441.pdfpages 5-21) and some agricultural activities such as growing nut trees can easily serve as a buffer and a source of income.

Riparian buffers also are significant because they offer a potential check against the effects of increased precipitation and runoff predicted by some models of climate change (IPCC). Overhead leaf canopy mechanically slows water velocity as it falls, thereby reducing the eroding capacity of the water and the ability of it to carry other particulates.

Regulations should be established to preserve existing riparian corridors. Funds should also be made available to establish new buffers in problematic areas and to reestablish destroyed buffers.

[end of child page 8]

[child page 9] 

 Establishment and Protection of Wetlands and Other Fragile Ecosystems:

Legislation should be enacted to protect wetlands against disturbance and destruction. Again, the principle of "avoid, minimize, compensate" should be used in permitting processes, which should identify wetland areas and provide for their maintenance.  Damaging a wetland should always be a last resort and should be compensated for by the construction of another wetland or by paying the appropriate government to build or improve another wetland elsewhere. (See [LINK TO RIPARIAN BUFFER PAGE] for this concept's application to riparian areas).

In areas where wetlands have been historically depleted, wetland reestablishment should be considered and economic incentives such as tax breaks could be offered to encourage it.  These projects should be carefully planned, and it should be noted that reestablished or created wetlands may not serve the same ecological functions as natural wetlands.

Special attention should be given to wetlands that are unique, host rare species, or perform important functions. An example of this type of prioritization can be seen in the Ramsar Convention's Wetlands of International Importance list (http://www.ramsar.org/about/info2007-05-e.pdffor criteria).

A similar tactic should be employed for coral reef protection, especially with regards to regulation of destructive practices. Coral reefs should be given top priority in terms of aquatic resource protection. Educational efforts should also be expended to encourage public support for coral reef protection; education in this sector should be effective considering the immense beauty and intrinsic value of these areas. Other unique and critical habitats should be afforded specific legislative protection as well.

Tourism

Visitors to these unique ecosystems may be a source of income and also may make protection of these ecosystems easier, as tourism will increase public knowledge of and support for their existence. For coral reefs in the Florida Keys, the economic benefit derived from tourism is valued at $7.6 billion (Johns et al, 2001). The subsidy of ecologically friendly tourism ventures in these areas should be considered as a way to increase public interest in this area. Regulations should be in place, however, to ensure that ecological harm does not occur due to increased human and boat traffic.

[end of child page 9] 

[child page 10] 

(4) Dam Planning and Regulation:

For dams that have not yet been built there are many steps that can be taken to minimize the impacts. First, efforts should be made to increase energy and water efficiency as much as possible; in the past, increases in technological efficiency, recycling, enforcement of environmental legislation, and reduction of industrial water use allowed water consumption to grow much slower than population (WCD).  However, if a dam is definitely needed, research should be conducted to determine its environmental impacts. The World Commission on Dams reports that many of the negative impacts are not foreseen; it predicts that use of environmental impact assessments could significantly reduce these effects (WCD). Furthermore, proper placement of dams (such as on tributaries rather than on a main branch) and the use of minimal numbers of dams on a given river (because multiple dams can have cumulative effects) should be required by governments as such restrictions can minimize the large-scale negative impacts of large dams (WCD). Once these data are collected, the dam planning may begin; in this way, the dam design can take into account such features as gates that allow managed flood releases on a scale that can mitigate effects to the ecosystem; the permit for dam construction can require these provisions. The use of such managed floods in Kenya has been economically favorable by maintaining sectors of the economy that relied upon flows that would have been blocked entirely by damming (WCD). These floods help to release nutrients and sediments and help lessen the impact of the dam overall (WCD). These managed floods should be tailored to a specific river, as flood cycles are highly unique. It is important, however, that all such planning occurs before dam construction, as post-construction mitigation techniques have not been shown to be effective; the WCD reports rates of 20% effectiveness. It is possible that the IFIM (Instream Flow Incremental Methodology), as described earlier in (LINK TO WATER QUALITY ASSESSMENT AND LEGISLATION) could be used to help predict the effects of a dam and the effects of controlled flooding. !damphoto.gif!Source: USGS

Fish passes around, through, or over dams currently have a very low success rate. In Norway, fish passes report a 26% rate of "good efficiency" and 32% of no success at all (WCD). In many parts of the world, fish passes are not used at all. Also, even with fish passes, fish often suffer from a lack of environmental cues (like currents) that help them find their spawning site (WCD). However, properly designed fish passes (specific to each dam and species of intended use) do hold promise; in Pennsylvania, fish passes were ineffective until tailored to the American shad, at which point they became very helpful in shad restoration (Richardson). Fish hatcheries and stocking may also be required to augment populations until the spawning routine is reestablished with the dam in place; successful restoration of American shad and striped bass required such measures (Richardson), and these methods are likewise advocated by the WCD. The creation of artificial wetlands around shallow dams can also help mitigate dam impact by providing new habitat (WCD). Our recommendation is for governments to require dams to have appropriate fish passes or to pay a yearly fee to the government which can be used for  restoration and study of the species affected by the dam.

For developed countries with large budgets and effective environmental legislation (such as France and the United States) decommissioning dams is a way to aid fish such as salmon (WCD, 2000). While short-term effects of dam removal include large-scale sediment flushing, over relatively short time scales fish will return and spawn in those areas. However, dam removal is costly and must be studied beforehand; in many cases, toxins and chemicals can build up behind dams and the effects of these toxins washing downstream can be severe (Francisco).

Ways to address the negative fishery impacts of existing dams include controlled floods, installation of wetlands, and introduction of nutrients downstream of the dam (Wuest). The viability of these measures may be limited by factors ranging from budgetary concerns to the design of the dam itself.

Appropriate consideration of environmental impacts should be mandatory at every step of the dam planning process.

[end child page 10] 

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